DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

I TED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUE \ ; 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water-Supply Papek 221 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 



OF THE 



GREAT FALLS REGION 



MONTANA 



BY 



CASSIUS A. FISHER 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1909 




OassJJtB 7£5 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water-Supply Paper 221 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 



OF THE 



GEEAT FALLS REGION 

MONTANA 



BY 

CASSIUS A. FISHER 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1909 



r V 



FEB n 13 , 
D.wl 



^N. 






CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction 7 

Literature S 

General statements 8 

Bibliography 9 

Geography 10 

General features 10 

Plains province '_ 10 

Drainage 11 

Detailed descriptions of districts . 11 

Geology 14 

Stratigraphy 14 

General outline 14 

Carboniferous system 17 

Madison limestone 17 

Quadrant formation _v 17 

Jurassic system 18 

Ellis formation 18 

Morrison formation IS 

Cretaceous system 20 

Kootenai formation 20 

Colorado formation 22 

Montana group 23 

Eagle formation 23 

Claggett formation 23 

Quaternary system 24 

Terrace deposits 24 

Glacial deposits . 25 

Alluvium . 26 

Structure 26 

Little Belt Mountains 27 

Highwood Mountains 27 

Lewis and Big Belt ranges 27 

Water resources ^_ 28 

Source 28 

Surface waters 28 

Streams 28 

Missouri River 28 

Sun River ,, 30 

Smith River 31 

Teton River '_ 31 

Belt Creek— 32 

Otter Creek 32 

Other small streams 32 

Lakes and swamps _ __„ 34 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Water resources — Continued. Page. 

Underground waters 35 

General statements 35 

Springs 35 

Distribution 35 

Giant springs _ 37 

Wells 39 

List of springs 42 

List of wells 50 

List of artesian wells 58 

Artesian conditions 60 

Water supply by districts 61 

Geyser district 61 

Otter Creek district 63 

Great Falls district 63 

Missouri River valley district 64 

Ulm Bench 64 

Area south of Sun River 65 

Sun River valley 65 

Highlands north of Sun River 66 

Fort Benton Bench 66 

Teton River valley 67 

Burton Bench 67 

Muddy Creek artesian basin 68 

General description 68 

Source 69 

Water supply of towns and villages 69 

Chemical character of water 71 

Analyses of waters 73 

Water power 76 

Description of falls 76 

Utilization 76 

Undeveloped power 2 77 

Irrigation 78 

General statements 78 

Sun River valley 78 

Teton River valley 79 

Other valleys 79 

Agriculture 80 

Climate 80 

Temperature 80 

General statements 80 

Great Falls region 81 

Rainfall 82 

Culture 84 

Index 87 



ILLUSTRATIONS, 



/ Page. 

Plate I. geologic map of Great Falls region, Montana In pocket. 

liy A, Dry bed of Belt Creek, near Belt, Mont. ; B, Northwest side of 
Square Butte, showing Eagle sandstone overlain by igneous 
rock 12 

III. A, View 01 dam at Black Eagle Falls and the\ Anaconda Consoli- 

dated Copper and Mining Company's smelters, Great Falls, 

Mont.; B, Rainbow Falls of Missouri River, 4 miles below 

J the town of Great Falls, Mont 28 

IV. A, Crooked Falls of Missouri River, near Great Falls, Mont; B, 

Big Falls of Missouri River, 9 miles northeast of Great Falls, 

Mont..... 30 

V. A, Spring at base of Colorado sandstone, 12 miles south of Great 

Falls, Mont; B, Giant Springs, near Great Falls, Mont 36 

VI) Map of Great Falls, showing preglacial channel of Missouri 
River and course of underground water, Great Falls district, 

/ Montana 38 

VII. Irrigation, agricultural, and water-resource map of Great Falls re- 
gion, Montana 62 

5 



GEOLOGY and water resources of the great 

FALLS REGION, MONTANA. 



By Cassius A. Fisher. 



INTRODUCTION. 

This report is based on field work done during the season of 1906 
in connection with a detailed investigation of the geology and coal 
resources of the Great Falls coal field. It is designed mainly to fur- 
nish information regarding the general geology of the region and the 
prospects for underground water. A brief description of the differ- 
ent geologic formations is given, with statements concerning their 
structure, general distribution, and water capacity. The surface 
waters are also described, including their present and proposed uses 
for irrigation, water power, etc., and the agricultural interests of 
different parts of the district are briefly discussed. 

The region considered comprises that portion of the Great Plains 
bordering the Rocky Mountain Front Range, which extends from 
about longitude 110° W. to about 112° 30' W., and from about lati- 
tude 47° N. to about 48° N". It includes the lowlands lying between 
the Little Belt and Highwood mountains, and extends to the west 
and north with increasing width to a point about 10 miles north 
of Teton River. The area comprises about 3,600 square miles, the 
location of which is shown in the key map in PL I (pocket). It is 
situated in north-central Montana, mainly in Cascade and Teton 
counties, but includes portions of Fergus, Chouteau, and Lewis and 
Clark counties. It is bounded on the south and west by the Little 
Belt, Big Belt, and Lewis mountain ranges, and on the east and north 
by the Great Plains and Highwood Mountains. 

The topographic map used as a base for the geologic map, and 
also for the water-resources and other maps presented in the report, 
was, for the eastern part of the district, taken mainly from detailed 
reconnaissance surveys of the Great Falls coal field, made from a 
land-subdivision standpoint by the author and his party. Topo- 
graphic data for the marginal portions of the east half of the map 



8 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OP GREAT PALLS REGION, MONT. 

were also taken from atlas sheets of the Fort Benton and Great Falls 
quadrangles surveyed in 1896. The map of the western portion of 
the field was made in greater part from rapid reconnaissance surveys 
carried on while the underground-water investigation was being 
made. 

Throughout the work valuable assistance was rendered by W. R. 
Calvert and D. E. Winchester. These gentlemen mapped portions 
of the area, collected much of the well and spring data, and made 
field assays of the water. In the areal geologic mapping assistance 
was given by H. M. Eakin, who measured numerous sections and col- 
lected structural data. Much valuable information was furnished 
by S. B. Robbins, engineer of the Sun River reclamation project, 
regarding both underground and surface waters of the Great Falls 
region, and aid was also given by O. C. Mortson and John French. 

LITERATURE. 

GENERAL STATEMENTS. 

Previous observers have given but little information regarding the 
underground water resources of the Great Falls region. The surface 
waters, particularly the Great Falls of Missouri River and the Giant 
Springs, are phenomena that have attracted widespread attention 
since the earliest explorers followed up the course of Missouri River 
to the westward. Captain Lewis, of the Lewis and Clark expedi- 
tion, who visited this region in 1804, was the first to give an accurate 
account of the Great Falls and Giant Springs, and doubtless other 
early explorers had been attracted by them and made brief mention 
of their occurrence in describing the Northwest Territory. The work 
of the geologists of the Hayden and transcontinental surveys was con- 
fined mainly to the region lying east of Great Falls, and with one or 
two exceptions did not extend into this district. With the develop- 
ment of water power at the Black Eagle Falls, which took place in 
1893, a number of articles appeared in the engineering journals de- 
scribing the power which could be generated in this vicinity by the 
development of all the large waterfalls. In the Fort Benton folio^ 
published in 1899, which includes a portion of the Little Belt Moun- 
tains, the Highwood Mountains, and adjoining plains, attention is 
called to the favorable prospects for artesian water in a portion of 
the quadrangle. Since the Government irrigation project has been 
undertaken in Sun and Teton River valleys, a number of scientific 
and popular articles have been published dealing principally with the 
surface waters of the region. Following is a chronological list of the 
more important papers published on the surface-water resources of 
the Great Falls region, one of which sets forth the prospects for 
artesian water in the eastern part of the district. 



LITERATURE. 9 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MORE IMPORTANT PAPERS RELATING TO 
THE WATER RESOURCES OF THE GREAT FALLS REGION, MON- 
TANA. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-6. (Coues, 4 vols., 1893.) An account 
of the journey up the Missouri from St. Louis to the Rocky Mountains, thence 
to the Pacific coast. 

Contains description of the region bordering on the Missouri in the vicinity 
of Great Falls, Mont. The falls of the Missouri were measured and described. 

Newberry, J. S. Surface geology of the country bordering the Northern 
Pacific Railroad. In Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 30, pp. 337-347. 1885. 

Includes a brief description of the surface geology in the vicinity of Great 
Falls, Mont., with special reference to glacial drift. 

Newell, F. H. Thirteenth Annual Report U. S. Geological Survey, pt. 3. 
1892. 

The proposed irrigation system of the Sun River valley and the adjacent 
region is fully described, pp. 371-386, and the rainfall, topography, and amount 
of reclaimable land are discussed. 

Nettleton, B. S. Artesian and underflow investigation : Senate Ex. Doc. 41, 
pt. 2, 52d Cong., 1st sess., pp-78. 1892. 

Discusses the surface and underground water of Great Falls district in con- 
nection with an explanation of the source of artesian water in eastern South 
Dakota. 

Parker, M. S. Water power of the falls of the Missouri, Great Falls, Mont. 
In Engineering News, vol. 32, p. 44. 1894. 

The several falls of the Missouri are described, and estimates are made of 
available power. Reference is made to the Giant Springs. 

Parker, M. S. The Great Falls water power. In Engineering Record, vol. 
31, No. 16, pp. 274-275. 1895. 

Gives brief description of the various falls of the Missouri at Great Falls, 
Mont., and detailed illustrations of the power plant at Black Eagle Falls. 

Weed, W. H. Fort Benton folio, Montana. Geologic Atlas, U. S., folio No. 55, 
U. S. Geol. Survey. 1899. 

Discusses the general geology and mineral resources of the region, also the 
probability of obtaining artesian water in the area east of Otter Creek. 

Willis, Bailey. Stratigraphy and structure, Lewis and Livingstone ranges, 
Montana. In Geol. Soc. America, vol. 13, pp. 305-352. 1902. 

Describes the physiography of the Lewis and Livingstone mountain ranges 
and adjoining plains, also character and structural relations of the Algonkian, 
Carboniferous, Cretaceous, and Quaternary rocks. 

Newell, F. H, Second Annual Report of the Reclamation Service. 1904. 

An abstract of a reconnaissance in Sun River valley, Montana, is included. 

Newell, F. H. Third Annual Report of the Reclamation Service. 1905. 

The proposed irrigation project of the Sun and Teton rivers district is dis- 
cussed. The water supply of the streams, the storage reservoirs available, and 
the territory subject to irrigation are described. 

Upham, Warren. Outer glacial drift. In Am. Geologist, vol. 34, pp. 151-160. 
1904. 

The glacial drift of the Northwestern States, including Montana, is discussed. 
Reference is made to its effect upon the drainage of the Missouri River system. 

Leiberg, J. C. Forest conditions in the Little Belt Mountains Forest Reserve, 
Montana, and the Little Belt Mountains quadrangle. Prof. Paper No. 30, U. S. 
Geol. Survey. 1904. 



a Compiled by W. R. Calvert. 



10 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GKEAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

The surface waters of the region and their relation to agricultural, grazing, 
and forest lands, are included in the discussion. 

Calhoun, F. H. The Montana lobe of the Keewatin ice sheet. Prof. Paper 
No. 50, IT. S. Geol. Survey. 1906. 

The glacial history of the Great Falls region is given, with a discussion of 
the effect of glaciation on the drainage system of the Missouri in that area. 
Reference is made to artesian conditions near Chouteau. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

The area treated in this report presents a variety of surface 
features. It lies in a region which is transitional between plain and 
mountainous topography and includes portions characteristic of both. 
Its salient features are broad, gently sloping plateaus bordering the 
adjacent mountain ranges. These plateaus are traversed by numerous 
mountain streams, which flow through deep and relatively narrow 
valleys throughout the eastern portion of the district, but toward the 
west, where the valleys have been developed in softer rocks, they are 
usually wide and open. Along the southern margin of the area, from 
Smith River to the eastern end, the surface of the plains rises grad- 
ually by sloping plateaus, culminating in a zone of high, hilly coun- 
try bordering the Little Belt Mountains, which lie farther to the. 
south. East of Belt Creek and north of the area described the High- 
wood Mountains rise abruptly above the plains as a cluster of high 
isolated peaks, reaching an altitude of over 7,000 feet. Between the 
Highwood and Little Belt mountains is the Otter Creek divide, 
having at its lowest point an altitude of 4,300 feet. To the east of 
this divide the country is drained by Arrow Creek and its tributaries 
and to the west by Belt Creek and its most important branch, Otter 
Creek, from which the above- described divide derives its name. 

PLAINS PROVINCE. 

Thoughout the region which lies to the west of Missouri River the 
country presents topographic features characteristic of the Great 
Plains, of which it forms the western margin. It is a region of long, 
gently sloping plateaus traversed by streams having relatively wide 
valleys. On the summit of this table-land at many places remnants 
of higher plateaus occur in the form of isolated buttes or long irregu- 
lar ridges, of which Teton Ridge forms a notable example. West- 
ward the surface rises by successive plateaus toward the base of the 
Lewis Mountains ; the surface features become more diversified ; and 
there are a number of high isolated buttes south of Sun River which 
form some of the most conspicuous topographic features of the 
region. There is a moderate range of altitude in the district. The 
highest points examined occur along the base of the Little Belt 



GEOGEAPHY. 11 

Mountains, where the more prominent summits rise to an altitude of 
over 5,000 feet. The lowest point in the district is along Missouri 
River below Big Falls, where the altitude is 2,900 feet above sea level. 
The average altitude of the region is between 3,500 and 4,000 feet. 
The greatest variation in altitude for any locality is about 1,300 feet 
in a horizontal distance of 1^ miles. This occurs between Belt Creek 
and the summit of Belt Butte at the town of Belt. In the Plains 
province the relative altitudes of the summits of the plateaus border- 
ing the valley bottoms range from 300 to 600 feet. 

DRAINAGE. 

The Great Falls region is drained by Missouri River, which crosses 
its central portion flowing in a northeasterly direction. Its flow 
varies greatly at different seasons of the year. High water occurs 
in the late spring and early summer months, when the greatest amount 
of snow is melted in the mountains, and the low-water mark is usu- 
ally reached in the month of September. The principal tributary of 
Missouri River from the north is Sun River, which rises in the Lewis 
Mountains and, flowing eastward, joins the Missouri at Great Falls. 
From the south the most important tributaries are Smith River and 
Belt Creek, the former entering the Missouri about 7 miles above 
Great Falls and the latter 10 miles below, outside of the area to which 
this report relates. Smith River drains an extensive country lying 
between Big Belt and Little Belt mountains, and Belt Creek drains 
the northern slope of the Little Belt Range (PL II, A). Teton River 
crosses the northern part of the area, flowing in an easterly direction. 
Its principal tributaries are Deep and Muddy creeks, both of which 
carry considerable water. Throughout the Plains province many 
of the smaller streams are intermittent, but those draining the north- 
ern slope of the Little Belt Mountains always have more or less 
water, especially in their upper courses. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF DISTRICTS. 

East of the low divide between the Highwood and Little Belt 
mountains the country slopes gradually northeastward toward Mis- 
souri River. It is traversed by several streams draining the slopes 
of the adjoining mountains. These streams flow through relatively 
wide valleys that are bordered by gravel-capped terraces of differ- 
ent elevations. Stanford Buttes, a prominent ridge lying between 
Running Wolf and Surprise creeks, is flat topped, being a remnant of 
an ancient terrace. To the north and east of this ridge gravel-capped 
plateaus of lower levels occupy interstream spaces. Toward the Lit- 
tle Belt Mountains the gravel-capped terraces give way to prominent 
hog-back ridges formed by the sandstone members of the Ellis and 



12 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

Kootenai formations, which extend in an irregular line of outcrop 
along the base of the mountains. Skull Butte, a low dome-shaped 
uplift situated about 6 miles south of Stanford, rises about 200 feet 
above the surrounding region. South of Skull Butte there are a num- 
ber of prominent ridges with long gradual slopes to the north and 
bold escarpments to the south, which overlook valleys excavated 
in the soft Quadrant shale. In the southwest corner of T. 16 N, 
R. 10 E., is located Wolf Butte, a very prominent topographic 
feature in this part of the area. 

Broadly viewed, the district lying between the Otter Creek divide 
and Missouri River is a high plateau sloping northward and deeply 
dissected by numerous canyons. Belt and Box Elder creeks, Sand 
Coulee, and Smith River are the principal streams traversing this 
region. They all flow through deep, narrow valleys. The altitude 
of the plateau varies from 3,500 feet along Missouri River to 4,500 
feet or more along the southern border of the field. The difference 
in altitude between valley bottom and plateau summit in the northern 
part of the area is 300 to 400 feet, but toward the mountains this 
difference increases to over 600 feet. The streams of this district 
all flow in a northerly direction, except three of the larger tribu- 
taries of Smith River — Boston, Ming, and Goodwin coulees — which 
flow nearly west. Sand Coulee, which is formed by the confluence 
of a number of canyon tributaries southeast of Stockett, Aoavs north- 
ward for about 10 miles, then turns sharply to the west, and for the 
remainder of its course meanders through a wide, flat-bottomed valley 
formed by preglacial erosion of Missouri River. 

West of the Missouri and south of Sun River the surface rises 
westward in successive plateaus. The lowest of these plateaus, which 
lies north of Ulm station and comprises what is locally known as 
Ulm Bench, has an altitude of about 3,650 feet. West of Ulm Bench 
is a low saddle separating it from a higher plateau, which in its 
western extension is surmounted by two isolated buttes forming two 
of the most conspicuous topographic features of the Plains province. 
Square Butte, the smaller of the two, is a flat-topped, rectangular- 
shaped butte, rising abruptly to a height of 500 feet above the sur- 
rounding plain (PI. II, B). Fort Shaw Butte, which is in reality a 
ridge trending northwest, is of equal prominence, but has less pre- 
cipitous sides. It is less than 1 mile wide, is 2^ miles long, and is 
located about 2 miles west of Square Butte and almost directly south 
of Fort Shaw. It has an altitude of about 4,500 feet, rising several 
hundred feet above the surrounding country. About 3 miles south- 
west of Shaw Butte is a third, known as Crown Butte, which is also 
very prominent but somewhat smaller than the two above described. 
Between Shaw and Crown buttes there is a wide, open valley drained 
by Little Muddy Creek, a large intermittent stream joining the Mis- 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 221 PL. II 




A. DRY BED OF BELT CREEK, NEAR BELT, MONT. 




B. NORTHWEST SIDE OF SQUARE BUTTE, SHOWING EAGLE SANDSTONE OVERLAIN BY 

IGNEOUS ROCK. 



GEOGKAPHY. 18 

souri near Riverdale. South of Little Muddy Creek the surface 
rises rapidly toward the mountains. Between Sun River and Sims 
Creek a high gravel-capped plateau of irregular outline occurs, which 
extends 6 to 7 miles westward. It has an altitude of 3,600 feet and 
is bordered on the south by the wide, open valleys of Sims Creek and 
its tributaries. To the west the region consists of prominent ridges 
and detached buttes, presenting bold escarpments to the north over- 
looking Sun River valley and long gradual slopes to the south. 

Between Sun and Teton River valleys there is a high, gravel- 
capped, sloping plateau, which continues from the western margin 
of the district in a more or less modified form to Muddy Creek of 
Sun River. The southern edge of this plateau is very irregular 
from the west boundary of the district to a point about 3 miles 
north of Lowry, but from this point eastward it becomes sharply 
defined by a line of bluffs about 200 feet high. In its western ex- 
tension this plateau increases in altitude and culminates in a high 
crescent-shaped ridge with a bold north- facing escarpment over- 
looking Deep Creek valley. Eastward the ridge terminates in a 
number of isolated hills, the larger of which are locally known as 
Priest Buttes. From Priest Buttes southward to Freezeout Lake 
the east face of the plateau is deeply serrated by numerous canyons. 
Bordering this plateau on the east is a belt of level country, imper- 
fectly drained, which is locally known as Freezeout Basin. Near 
the middle of this basin and at the base of Freezeout Butte is Freeze- 
out Lake, 1J miles wide and about 3 miles long, which contains water 
only a small portion of the year. East of Freezeout Basin the sur- 
face rises slightly to a level table-land or plateau, which is locally 
known as the Freezeout Bench. The elevation of this plateau varies 
from 3,900 to 4,000 feet. 

The area between Teton River and its principal tributary from 
the north, Muddy Creek, is in its central portion a level plateau or 
bench having an altitude of 3,900 feet. It is locally known as 
Burton Bench. On the east, where this plateau is crossed by the 
terminal moraine of the Keewatin ice sheet, its surface is hilly, such 
as is characteristic of a morainal district, but to the west the surface 
rises gradually toward the base of the high bluffs occurring on either 
side of Ralston Gap. West of this prominent line of bluffs the 
country, which is crossed in its northern part by Muddy Creek, is 
rolling. North of Muddy Creek there is a low line of bluffs 100 to 
200 feet high, the margin of which is included within the area de- 
scribed. Between Teton River and its most important tributary, 
Deep Creek, is an area containing in its central portion typical bad- 
lands topography, with long, irregular ridges culminating in sharp 
peaks, the most prominent of which are Teton Buttes. On the north 



14 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

side of this high ridge the surface slopes away to Teton River, while 
to the south there is a wide, gravel-capped terrace which borders 
Deep Creek on the north. 

GEOIiOGY." 

STRATIGRAPHY. 
GENERAL OUTLINE. 

The formations occurring at the surface throughout the area to 
which this report relates consist mainly of sedimentary rocks with 
igneous intrusions in the form of dikes or laccoliths. The latter 
occur especially in the regions bordering the adjacent mountain 
ranges. The strata in general lie nearly horizontal or dip at a rela- 
tively small angle to the northeast away from the mountains. They 
are representative of Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, 
and Quaternary systems. The distribution of these formations, 
except the Tertiary and certain members of the Quaternary, is 
shown on the geologic map (PL I), and their structural relations, 
particularly those affecting the occurrence of underground water, 
are illustrated in the cross sections. The table on pages 15-16 sets 
forth the order, age, characteristic features, thickness, and water 
capacity of the formations. 

a A detailed report of the geology of the Great Falls region will appear in Bulletin 
No. 356 of the Geological Survey. 



GEOLOGY. 



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GEOLOGY. 17 

CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 
MADISON LIMESTONE. 

The Madison limestone is very conspicuous, bordering the north 
side of the Little Belt Mountains, but in the greater part it lies out- 
side of the area here described. The only exposures in the district 
are found along East Fork of Sand Coulee and its tributaries, where 
a local doming of the beds exposes about 100 feet of the formation. 
The distribution of the limestone is shown on the geologic map 
(PL I). Along the flanks of the Little Belt Mountains, outside of 
the area to which this report relates, the limestone has a thickness 
of about 1,000 feet, and three members have been recognized by pre- 
vious workers. The lower member, which is more or less argilla- 
ceous, has been called the Paine shale, the more massive limestone 
of the middle part of the formation the Woodhurst limestone, and 
the top member the Castle limestone. The Castle limestone forms 
the " sluicebox canyon," the lower end of which is at Riceville. It 
is a part of the upper division of Madison limestone, which is exposed 
at numerous places in the vicinity of Stockett. 

That portion of the formation exposed in the area here described 
consists mainly of limestone, interbedded with calcareous clay. The 
limestone is usually massive and compact, and is of medium to dark 
gray color, weathering light. It occurs in beds 10 to 12 feet thick, 
and is generally relatively pure. At Stockett, 15 feet of oolitic 
limestone was observed, and at another locality on Ming Coulee, 
where about 110 feet of the limestone was exposed, the lowest mem- 
ber contains bands of dark-colored chert. Fossils were collected 
from the limestone at Stockett, also on the head of Ming Coulee, 
outside the area described. 

These fossils have been examined by Dr. G. H. Girty, who regards 
them as of Mississippian age. In the Little Belt Mountains the 
Madison limestone is said to carry a typical Mississippian fauna. 

The Madison limestone is believed not to be water-bearing, espe- 
cially that portion which outcrops within this area. Several wells 
have penetrated the limestone in the vicinity of Stockett and Sand 
Coulee, and have invariably failed to obtain water. 

QUADRANT FORMATION. 

The Quadrant formation consists of sandstone, shale, and limestone, 
with beds of gypsum in the lower part. It lies outside of the area 
studied except in a few localities, notably on Belt Creek, near Rice- 
ville, on Little Otter Creek, 2J miles above its mouth, along the base 
of the Little Belt Mountains from Otter Creek to near the southeast 
corner of the area described, and in the central part of Skull Butte. 
54572— irr 22i—09 2 



18 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GEEAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

In the exposure near Riceville, the basal member of the Quadrant con- 
sists of reddish sandy shale with an occasional layer of gypsum. 
Overlying this member, to which Weed a has applied the term Kibbey 
sandstone, the deposits consist largely of shale with interbedded 
limestone and some sandstone, designated the Otter shale by the same 
author. The total thickness of the formation as exposed near Rice- 
ville is less than 500 feet. 

The formation is not important as a water bearer, for throughout 
the greater part of the district it lies too deep to be reached by ordi- 
nary well borings, and as the upper member is shale and limestone 
and the lower gypsum-bearing soft sandstone, it is highly probable 
that if water were obtained it would be considerably mineralized. In 
the vicinity of Wolf Butte a number of sulphur springs issue from 
the shale members of this formation, and wherever springs are found 
in it the water contains a large amount of objectionable salts. 

JURASSIC SYSTEM. 
ELLIS FORMATION. 

The Ellis formation is composed of a basal limestone of variable 
thickness ranging from 20 to 60 feet, above which lies a coarse con- 
glomerate that passes upward into a medium-grained sandstone, light 
brown in color and more or less thin bedded. The limestone and con- 
glomerate contain Jurassic fossils. Those in the conglomerate are 
sometimes fragmentary, but more often combined with pebbles of 
limestone and quartzite several inches in diameter. The component 
parts of the conglomerate are bound together by a calcareous cement. 
The total thickness of the formation is about 125 feet, and it rests un- 
conformable upon the Quadrant and Madison formations. Though 
no practical tests have been made of the water capacity of the forma- 
tion, it is probable that the sandstone of the upper part would readily 
absorb water under favorable conditions. 

MORRISON FORMATION. 

The Morrison formation, which is extensively exposed along the 
Rocky Mountain Front Range in southern Montana and Wyoming, is 
also believed to occur along the northern base of the Little Belt Moun- 
tains. In previous investigations in this field the Morrison formation 
has not been recognized, and the beds comprising it have been in- 
cluded in the " Cascade " formation. During the field season of 1906 
dinosaur bones, believed by C. H. Gilmore to be of Jurassic age, were 
found at one horizon in many different localities, and at one exposure, 

Weed, W. H., Geologic Atlas U. S., folio 55, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, p. 2. 



GEOLOGY. 19 

about 30 feet below the bone-bearing horizon, a green shale was seen 
containing a distinctly fresh-water fauna later than the Ellis forma- 
tion. These sediments, which are here provisionally regarded as con- 
stituting the Morrison formation, consist of sandstone and bright- 
colored sandy shale, with an occasional layer of impure limestone, 
generally in lenticular form. It lies with apparent conformity on the 
Ellis, and is overlain conformably by the Kootenai. The thickness 
varies from 60 to 120 feet, but the exact limits of the formation are 
often difficult to determine. Fragments of bones have been found at 
different horizons throughout the overlying Kootenai formation, but 
thus far none have been discovered in this region sufficiently well pre- 
served for specific determination. It is possible that future investi- 
gation may prove that the sediments here tentatively regarded as be- 
longing to the Morrison formation are in reality a basal member of 
the Kootenai. 

The formation is generally exposed in a narrow band on the inner 
rim of a low ridge formed by the harder overlying rocks of the Koo- 
tenai formation. It outcrops all along the base of the Little Belt 
Mountains from the east end of the district to Smith River. Good 
exposures occur along the upper courses of Sage, Skull, Running 
Wolf, Hazlett, Surprise, Geyser, and Otter creeks, and in the bluffs 
for some distance back from the mountains along Belt Creek, Sand 
Coulee, Smith River and its principal tributary, Ming Coulee. The 
following section will show the succession of the beds : 

Section of the Morrison formation on the east side of Belt Creek, Montana, in 
NE. i sec. 30, T. 18 N., R. 7 E. 

Feet. 

Gray, thin-bedded sandstone 17 

Pebbly conglomerate occurring in lenses 5 

Maroon and green shale 52 

Green shale capped by 1£ feet of gray sandstone 5 

Calcareous sandstone, weathering light brown 5 

Green shale , 20 

Massive sandstone, weathering light brown 7 

Dark-green shale containing thin limestone layers 9 

Ellis formation. 

120 

The so-called Morrison formation is believed not to be an impor- 
tant water-bearing formation in this general district. It is composed 
largely of shale and clay, which are apparently not sufficiently porous 
to absorb or transmit underground water freely. It is possible, how- 
ever, that some of its sandy members may contain water ; but it is in- 
ferred from their lithologic character and the absence of springs 
throughout their exposed areas that they are not water bearing. 



20 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 
KOOTENAI FORMATION. 

The Kootenai formation includes the upper third of the " Cas- 
cade," the Dakota, and the basal red shale included in the Colorado 
formation as described by W. H. Weed a in the Fort Benton folio. 
The name Cascade, as referring to a Cretaceous formation, was first 
used by that author in his description of the rocks of the Fort Benton 
quadrangle to apply to a series of beds ranging in thickness from 
225 to 500 feet. The lower part of the formation, as originally de- 
scribed, consisted of lavender-tinted sandstone and highly colored 
shale and clay with massive gray sandstone above containing at its 
base a workable bed of coal. 

During the present investigation, as previously stated, saurian 
bones, believed by some geologists to be of Jurassic age, were dis- 
covered in the lower half of the so-called " Cascade " formation, 
which indicates that these beds are probably of Morrison age, 
although vertebrate remains continue to occur to the top of the 
Kootenai. Between a horizon 45 feet below the coal bed and the top 
of the " Cascade " formation, as above defined, fossil plants of 
Kootenai age were collected at four different horizons, which estab- 
lishes the lower Cretaceous age of this portion of the formation. 
On the east side of Spanish Coulee, a tributary of Smith Kiver, 
at a horizon about 150 feet above the " Cascade " formation, in 
beds the stratigraphic equivalent of which near Belt are regarded 
provisionally by Weed as of Dakota age, a large collection of 
Kootenai plants were secured from dark coaly shale associated with 
red and green shale and clay. Overlying this plant-bearing bed 
there is about 200 feet of sediment consisting of red shale and sand- 
stone, not differing materially in stratigraphy from beds imme- 
diately underlying the plant horizon. For this reason, together with 
the apparent absence of the Dakota flora in these beds, this member 
is provisionally regarded as of lower Cretaceous age and included in 
the Kootenai formation. It is overlain by dark-colored shale and 
sandstone of the Colorado formation, in the lower part of which 
were discovered marine saurian remains. 

In this report it is not regarded as advisable to employ the name 
Cascade for the following reasons : The term has not been as exten- 
sively used in the literature as the older term Kootenai; its usage 
would necessitate redefining the term in order to separate its lower 
member, which is now believed to be Morrison ; and the beds imme- 
diately overlying the formation can not be differentiated paleonto- 
logically from the " Cascade," both being of lower Cretaceous age, 

a Weed, W. H., Geologic Atlas U. S., folio 55, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899. 



GEOLOGY. 21 

rendering it necessary to base the upper limit of the formation in 
question purely on lithologic grounds. 

The Kootenai formation is about 450 feet thick and consists of 
alternating layers of sandstone and shale with the former predomi- 
nating, especially in the lower half. The sandstone varies in thick- 
ness from 10 to 80 feet and is more or less massive in character. In 
the upper part shale predominates and is interbedded with thin layers 
of impure sandstone. At Belt, on the east side of Belt Creek, where a 
complete section was measured, the basal member of the formation 
consists of a sandy shale interbedded with sandstone, the latter pre- 
dominating, and the whole having a thickness of about 60 feet. This 
member sometimes consists of firm, massive sandstone, with only a 
small percentage of shale. It is overlain by coal, which here has a 
thickness of 6 feet, including a few thin partings. Above the coal 
there is a dark, coaly shale 5 to 6 feet thick, covered by 38 feet of 
massive light-gray sandstone. This sandstone is followed in ascend- 
ing order by 138 feet of beds consisting mainly of alternating layers 
of sandstone, red shale, and clay, with an occasional limestone lens 
in the lower part. Above this alternating series of sandstone, red 
shale, and limestone there is about 200 feet of red shale, which con- 
stitutes the topmost member of the formation. On the north side of 
Skull Butte the base of the Kootenai consists of a soft, light-gray, 
massive sandstone, but in other respects the portion of the formation 
exposed in this locality agrees closely with the beds exhibited at Belt 
Butte. A section of the Kootenai on the north side of Skull Butte is 
given below: 

Section of the Kootenai formation on the north side of Skull Butte, Mont. 

Reddish sandy shale. Feet. 

Gray thin-bedded sandstone 1J 

Reddish sandy shale with layers of sandstone in the lower 

part 21 

Greenish-gray sandstone, weathering dark, thin-bedded above, 

clay-ball conglomerate below 4 

Reddish sandy shale, with layers of sandstone in lower part__ 27 
Gray cross-bedded sandstone, clay-ball conglomerate in lower 

part 5£ 

Reddish sandy shale 30 

Soft, thin-bedded sandstone , 20 

Gray, massive sandstone, clay-ball conglomerate Si 

Red sandy shale 38 

Gray, massive sandstone, clay-ball conglomerate 5 

Red sandy shale 24 

Calcareous sandstone, alternating with sandy shale 20 

Light and dark gray, fine-grained, massive sandstone 86 _ 

Coal and coaly shale (estimated) 6 

Soft, massive, gray sandstone 62 

353i 



22 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

Next to the Colorado the Kootenai has the greatest areal distribu- 
tion of all the formations outcropping within the area. It occupies 
the surface over a great part of the district lying between Smith River 
and Belt Creek and is the surface formation of the high plateaus 
south of Otter Creek. Beyond Otter Creek it is exposed as a band of 
varying width, which narrows eastward. 

The Kootenai is the principal water-bearing formation of the Great 
Falls region. As above stated, it consists mainly of sandstone and 
sandy shale. The sandstone is medium to coarse-grained and porous 
so that it readily absorbs water when the structural conditions are 
favorable. Along each side of Otter Creek and its tributaries from 
the south, also in Sand Coulee and its tributaries, the various sand- 
stone members of the Kootenai formation are the source of numer- 
ous springs, and in the eastern part of the territory, where this sand- 
stone is overlain by impervious Colorado shale, it contains artesian 
water. 

COLORADO FORMATION. 

The Colorado formation is well developed in this general region, 
being represented by about 1,600 feet of beds. In its type locality in 
the vicinity of Fort Benton, only a few miles to the north, it is 
essentially a shale formation, but throughout this region the lower 
part contains a number of prominent sandstone members. West of 
Great Falls, where the formation is typically developed, its basal 
member consists of a soft, massive sandstone somewhat concretionary, 
which is about 30 feet thick. Above this sandstone there is approxi- 
mately 35 feet of sediment composed largely of dark-colored shale, 
with a few sandstone beds. This dark-colored shale is overlain by 
gray, coarse-grained, massive sandstone, containing concretionary 
layers and an occasional thin bed of soft, sandy shale, the whole 
having a thickness of about 80 feet. Above the sandstone for about 
300 feet the beds consist mainly of alternating layers of sandstone 
and shale. These are followed by 700 feet of beds composed largely 
of uniformly dark-colored shale, which constitutes the uppermost 
member of the Colorado. 

The Colorado formation is exposed throughout a wide area extend- 
ing along the south side of the Highwood Mountains from Belt Creek 
southeastward to the east border of the district. Its basal sandstone 
members occupy the summit of Red Buttes and continue westward 
as a plateau capping to the Missouri River valley. Smith River and 
its tributaries cut the basal sandstone of the Colorado, exposing the 
underlying Kootenai rocks. The Colorado formation occupies the 
surface of the highland lying between Missouri and Sun rivers, also 
north and west of these streams to beyond the Teton. Its areal 
distribution is larger than any other formation within the district. 



GEOLOGY. 23 

The shale of the Colorado formation, which constitutes nearly two- 
thirds of its entire thickness, is not water bearing, but the sandstone 
comprising its basal portion, which is medium to coarse grained and 
porous, carries an abundance of water. Throughout Ulm Bench, 
which is capped by basal Colorado sandstone, a number of wells have 
been sunk that furnish a large supply of excellent water derived from 
this formation. It is also the source of well-water supply on the high- 
lands between Smith and Missouri rivers. East of Smith River there 
are a number of small springs situated along the margin of the 
detached plateaus which issue from the base of the Colorado sand- 
stone. A typical spring of this character is shown in PL V, A. 

M0NTAN1 GROUP. 

The Montana is extensively developed in the western part of the 
Great Falls region. It is represented within the area examined b}^ 
the Eagle and Claggett formations. West of the district fossils were 
obtained from it which are believed to be of Judith River age. No 
Pierre shale was recognized in this general vicinity, although the 
formation is probably represented in the steeply dipping beds that 
skirt the base of the Lewis Mountains. While no careful examination 
was made of the Cretaceous formations bordering the base of the Lewis 
Mountains, it is believed that the various members that constitute 
the Montana group in the Judith River basin are here represented. 

EAGLE SANDSTONE. 

The Eagle sandstone consists of massive gray sandstone containing 
large iron-stained concretions 3 to 10 feet in diameter, which are 
fossiliferous. Sandstone layers alternate with sandy shale in the 
lower part. It has a thickness of about 90 feet and is exposed in 
places underneath the igneous rock capping Square, Fort Shaw, and 
Crown buttes (see PI. II, B). It occupies, the summits of the bluffs 
at Lowry where fossils characteristic of the formation were collected. 
Farther north it caps Freezeout and Priest buttes and gives rise to a 
conspicuous line of bluffs extending northward west of Chouteau 
and past Ralston Gap to the northern margin of the district. The 
distribution of the formation is not shown on the geologic map. The 
Eagle sandstone is a water-bearing formation, as is shown by the 
numerous small springs which issue from its base around Fort Shaw 
and Square buttes. 

CLAGGETT FORMATION. 

Overlying the Eagle sandstone is the Claggett formation, which 
consists of dull green and gray sandy shale, clay, and impure sand- 
stone; also massive, light-gray and very dark-green, iron-stained, 



24 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GEEAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

conglomeratic sandstone. In the upper part of that portion of the 
formation exposed in the area examined there is an erosional uncon- 
formity, which may be local, exhibiting a marked change in the char- 
acter of the beds immediately above and below the contact. This 
apparent unconformity is well exposed on the north face of a high 
bluff on the south side of Sun River about 7 miles below Augusta, 
where the following section was taken : 

Section of a portion of the Claggett formation on the south side of Sun 

River, Mont. a 

Feet. 
Sandstone, dark green, conglomeratic, interbedded with 

sandy, leaf-bearing shale 50 

Unconformity? 

Sandstone, massive, gray, and sandy shale, fossiliferous 

throughout 125 

Sandstone, soft greenish gray 95 

Shale, sandy and dark green, interbedded with sandstone 

layers which are concretionary 100 

The Claggett formation occupies the surface south of Sun River 
and west of Crown Butte, also north of Sun River throughout a part 
of the district lying west of a line connecting Lowry with Bas Chris- 
tian's ranch. The areal distribution of the formation is not shown 
on the geologic map. The sandstone members of the Claggett forma- 
tion probably contain more or less water, although as far as could 
be ascertained no wells have been sunk in them. 

QUATERNARY SYSTEM. 
TERRACE DEPOSITS. 

Throughout a great part of the territory lying east of Otter Creek 
divide and north of Sun River most of the interstream spaces are 
capped by bench gravel. This deposit consists of gravel and sand 
ranging in thickness from 10 to 40 feet and having smooth surfaces 
sloping gently away from the uplift. The component parts of the 
gravel, especially in the terraces north of Sun River which have 
their source to the west in the Lewis Mountains, are mainly sand- 
stone, limestone, and chert, with a small per cent of igneous rock, 
the whole being sometimes bound together by calcareous cement. 
In the eastern part of the area the gravel of the terraces is more di- 
versified, containing a larger percentage of igneous rock derived from 
the Little Belt Mountains to the south. 

a Fossils collected from the locality where the above section was measured are regarded 
by T. W. Stanton as of the same age as forms collected from the Claggett formation in 
Judith River basin. 



GEOLOGY. 25 

Gravel deposits of four different periods have been recognized. 
The earlier gravel, which is often cemented into conglomerate, occurs 
only in limited areas, capping some of the more prominent buttes 
and ridges, while the later is widely distributed, especially through- 
out the eastern part of the field. This bench gravel probably ranges 
in age from Tertiary to later Quaternary age, having been brought 
down by streams from the Little Belt Mountains and spread by them 
over the lower plain country as their courses were shifted from time 
to time. The distribution of the terrace deposits is not shown on the 
geologic map. 

The gravel terraces of the Great Falls district usually contain 
some water. The amount, however, is not large, and a well sunk in 
them rarely obtains a sufficient quantity for both stock and domes- 
tic purposes of an average-sized ranch. That these gravels contain 
water, however, is shown by the fact that wherever they occupy ex- 
tensive areas they are the source of numerous small marginal springs. 
The water contained in them is derived from rainfall. 

GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 

Glacial deposits of late Wisconsin age occupy a considerable area 
throughout the Great Falls region. The terminal moraine of the 
Keewatin ice sheet enters the district at the east end of Burton Bench, 
extending south to Teton River, where it turns to the east and follows 
along the northern side of Teton Ridge to the vicinity of Duttcn. 
From here it extends diagonally southeastward past Benton Lake, 
across Missouri River to Sand Coulee near Gerber station, where it 
makes a sharp bend eastward and continues thus past the head of Red 
Coulee, thence northeastward to Belt Creek, where it passes off the 
northeast margin of the area. Its location and extent, as worked out 
by Calhoun, a are shown on the geologic map. The Keewatin ice 
sheet, extending into the region from the northeast, dammed up Mis- 
souri River and its tributaries, forcing the former to abandon its 
channel in many places, some of which were not reoccupied on the 
retreat of the ice. The abandoned channel, a portion of which is 
shown on the accompanying map, extends from the mouth of Sand 
Coulee, 4 miles south of Great Falls, northeastward in meandering 
course to the mouth of Belt Creek, where it unites with the present 
Missouri. In addition to the morainal deposits described above, there 
was deposited during the occupation of this general region by the ice 
extensive lake sediments in front of the terminal moraine. Much of this 
material has been removed by post glacial erosion on the higher lands, 

a Calhoun, F. IT. H., Montana lobe of the Keewatin ice sheet : Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 50, 1906. 



26 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

but all the larger valleys in front of the moraine are filled with these 
sediments. Lake deposits of two different periods have been recog- 
nized by glaciologists in this region — an earlier and a later deposit. 
The limits of the earlier lake sediments can be ascertained only by 
bowlders lodged on the summits of the plateaus, while much of the 
deposits of the more recent lake still remains as a filling in the larger 
valleys. The distribution of the lake sediments is not shown sepa- 
rately, but is included with the valley wash. 

The glacial deposits — especially the more recent lake sediments fill- 
ing the valleys — are water bearing, and in some places in front of the 
terminal moraine they are the source of artesian water. The artesian 
water of Burton Bench is derived from granitic gravels overlain by 
impervious glacial clays deposited in front of the terminal moraine, 
and in Box Elder Creek valley is a flowing well, which is believed to 
have a similar source. 

ALLUVIUM. 

The alluvial deposits of this general region exhibit the usual di- 
versified character, especially along the larger streams, such as Mis- 
souri, Sun, and Teton rivers, the deposits varying in width from 
one-fourth to 1 mile. The material is composed of fine silt, sand, 
clay, and gravel, which have been transported by streams in times 
of high water and deposited at different places along their courses. 
Along Missouri River from the base of the Big Belt Mountains 
northeastward to the vicinity of Great Falls the river flows in a 
meandering course through a wide plateau plain of alluvium, but 
east of that point it flows through a narrow canyon in which only 
small detached areas of alluvium are found. 

The alluvial deposits generally contain a large amount of water 
and are the source of well water along nearly all the valleys in this 
region. The water in this formation is generally relatively pure, 
although the alluvium of some of the smaller valleys, especially in 
the Colorado shale areas, contains highly mineralized water. 

STRUCTURE. 

As the movement of water underground is governed to a certain 
extent by the structure of the formations, a brief description of the 
structural relations of the rocks of different parts of the district is 
here given, attention being called to the manner in which these 
structures affect the prospects for artesian water. Throughout the 
Plains portion of the region described the structure is relatively 
simple and the rocks lie nearly horizontal, dipping with a small angle 
to the north and east away from the mountains ; but in the mountain- 
ous portion the structure is more complex. 



GEOLOGY. 27 

LITTLE BELT MOUNTAINS. 

The general structure of the Little Belt Mountains, which border 
this area on the south, is that of an anticlinal uplift with sharply 
dipping sides and a flat summit. In the central portion of the range 
the stratified rocks lie nearly horizontal, while along the northern 
flanks of the uplift, as shown on the head of Avoca Creek, the lime- 
stone dips at an angle of 15° to 20° toward the lower Plains country. 
The simple structure of the northern part of the uplift has been 
considerably modified by the intrusion of igneous rocks in the form 
of laccoliths, which have caused local doming of the strata in many 
places. Only one of these laccolithic domes occurs within the area 
described, but there are others, such as are found east of Kibbey 
and in the head of Dry Wolf Creek, whose marginal structure ex- 
tends into this area. In the vicinity of the larger intruded masses 
of igneous rock the dips are often steep and variable, but in that 
portion of the mountain front where local intrusions have not dis- 
turbed the strata they dip away normally from the uplift at angles 
of 6° to 12°, lessening gradually toward the lower Plains country, 
thus producing ideal structural conditions for the occurrence of 
artesian water on the plains. 

HIGHWOOD MOUNTAINS. 

The Highwood Mountains, which border on the north the eastern 
end of the area described, are structurally different from the Little 
Belt Range. They consist of a group of isolated peaks which have 
been formed by igneous intrusion in Cretaceous rocks which were 
horizontally bedded or slightly inclined eastward. Subsequent to 
this intrusion stream erosion has removed much of the softer rock, 
leaving the harder rock standing as a cluster of peaks above the 
surrounding plain. 

LEWIS AND BIG BELT RANGES 

The Lewis and Big Belt ranges, being more remote from the field 
investigated, were not examined, but their broader structural features, 
as worked out by previous investigators, are given below. 

The Lewis Mountains, lying to the west of the district and consti- 
tuting the Rocky Mountain Front Range of northern Montana, have 
been formed by an overthrust fault of considerable magnitude, ex- 
tending along the east side of the range, which superimposes Algon- 
kian strata on upper Cretaceous rocks. The extent of the thrust in 
the vicinity of Chief Mountain, which lies to the north, is said to be 
7 miles in a horizontal direction. Under these conditions it is ap- 
parent that rocks occupying the surface throughout the adjoining 
plains on the east will in their westward extension pass under the 
higher portions of the mountains instead of extending normally up 



28 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

their flanks, thus producing structural relations not favorable to the 
occurrence of artesian water in the western part of the Great Falls 
region. From observations made in the vicinity of Cascade, the 
northern end of the Big Belt Mountains is formed by extensive 
masses of igneous rock penetrating upper Cretaceous sediments, which 
are in some places horizontally bedded and in others sharply folded. 
It is possible that the overthrust fault which extends along the face 
of the Lewis Eange turns eastward along the northern side of the 
Big Belt Mountains, but this point was not ascertained in the field. 

WATER RESOURCES. 

SOURCE. 

The source of water supply of the Great Falls region is found 
mainly in the adjoining mountain ranges. These mountains rise to 
altitudes of 8,000 to 10,000 feet, where there is a relatively large pre- 
cipitation and a heavy snowfall. They are covered to a greater or 
less extent by coniferous forests, and thus serve as natural reservoirs 
regulating the run-off of the district. The numerous streams travers- 
ing the Great Falls region head high in the slopes of the adjoining 
mountains. Here they gather a large amount of water from melting- 
snow, which is carried out of the mountains into the plains or is 
absorbed by the upturned edges of the porous rocks over which the 
streams pass, thus becoming available as artesian water lower down 
on the plains when the overlying impervious strata are penetrated by 
well borings. Extensive fires have denuded much of the mountainous 
land which was formerly densely forested, leaving bare rocks and 
dead timber and causing the run-off to be more rapid. 

SURFACE WATERS. 
STREAMS. 

MISSOURI RIVER. 

The principal stream of the district is Missouri River. It enters 
the area near Cascade and flows in a northerly direction to the vicin- 
ity of Great Falls, where it changes to a more easterly course, con- 
tinuing thus to the border of the field. That portion of the stream 
lying above Great Falls flows in a meandering course through a wide 
valley, but below this point it enters a narrow valley with precipitous 
bluffs, passing over a number of cataracts collectively known as the 
Great Falls of the Missouri River (PL III, A and B, and PL IV, 
A and B). The drainage area of Missouri River at Cascade, Mont., 
is estimated at 18,295 square miles. Its largest tributaries from the 
south are Smith River and Belt Creek, and from the west and north 
Sun and Teton rivers, the latter entering the Missouri in the vicinity 
of Fort Benton outside of the area to which this report relates. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 221 PL. Ill 




A. DAM AT BLACK EAGLE FALLS AND THE ANACONDA CONSOLIDATED COPPER AND 
MINING COMPANY'S SMELTERS. GREAT FALLS, MONT. 













' ! -im/'.r 




B. RAINBOW FALLS OF MISSOURI RIVER, 4 MILES BELOW THE TOWN OF GREAT FALLS, 

MONT. 



SURFACE WATERS. 



29 



There are a number of medium to large size intermittent streams with 
relatively large drainage areas entering the river from either side. 
Those from the south are Bird Creek, Castner Coulee, Sand Coulee, 
Box Elder Creek, and Eed Coulee, and from the west Little Muddy 
Creek. The flow of Missouri River is by no means constant, but 
varies greatly with the season. According to discharge measure- 
ments made at Cascade, Mont., during four consecutive years from 
1902 to 1905, inclusive, it had a maximum flow of over 22,000 second- 
feet and a minimum of about 1,800 second- feet, the mean varying 
from about 2,000 to 18,000 second-feet. As previously stated, the 
greatest volume of water is carried by the stream during the months 
of June and July, and the low-water mark is generally reached in 
the month of September. The results of observations made on the 
flow of Missouri River at Cascade are given in the following table : 

Estimated rate of discharge of Missouri River at Cascade, Mont., 1902-1905, 

by months. 

[Measurements made by W. W. Schlecht and L. V. Branch.] 



Date. 



July 17-31 

August 

September. 

October 

November . 



1902. 



April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November . 
December . 



1903. 



January . 
February 
March . . . 



1904. 



Discharge in second- 
feet. 



Maxi- 



6,900 
2, 950 
2,305 
2,950 
4,030 



9,300 

12, 700 

22, 700 

12, 700 

3,420 

2,550 

3,170 

6,300 

9,900 



Mini- 



3,170 
1,810 
1,915 
2,380 
2,550 



4,730 
7,700 
12, 100 
2,845 
2,090 
1,970 
2,645 
3,170 
2,740 



Mean. 



4,847 
2,171 
2,057 
2,720 
3,176 



6,536 
9,958 
17,953 
7,302 
2,372 
2,274 
3,056 
4,470 



a 6, 000 
a6.000 
a 6, 000 



Date. 



1904. 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1905. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 1-27 



Discharge in second- 
feet. 



Mini- 
mum, mum 



12, 830 

21,710 

20, 600 

11, 350 

3,480 

2,380 

3,600 

3,600 

4,490 



3,930 
4,320 
4, 320 
10, 410 
10, 070 
2.900 
2,020 
2,600 
3,930 



5,150 
12, 090 
11, 350 
3,600 
2,305 
1,915 
2,465 
3,260 
2,740 



3,340 
3,120 
3,450 
4,060 
2,600 
1,800 
1,720 
1, 720 
2,600 



Mean. 



14, 925 
16, 660 
7,436 
2,898 
2,167 
2,979 
3,416 
3, 597 



3, 721 
3,635 
3,944 
8.081 
4,518 
2,147 
1,929 
2,159 
3,158 



a Estimated. 

Discharge measurements of Missouri River at Cascade, Mont., in 1902 and 1906. 
[Drainage area, 18,295 square miles.] 



Date. 


Hydrographer. 


Second-feet. 


1902. 
July 21 




5,537 
1,891 
3,131 

6,190 


September 9 . . . 




November 6 . . . 




1906. 
April 24 


G. Edson 


May 12 


do 


7,880 
14,400 
10, 400 


June 3 


do 


June 25 


Edson and Richards 


August 20 


R. Richards 


2,300 


September 17 . . 


Grover and Richards . . 




2,620 


October 31 


R. Richards 




3,480 











30 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GBEAT FALLS KEGION, MONT. 

According to measurements of the flow of Missouri River, made 
by E. T. Nettleton in September, 1891, this stream loses 834 second- 
feet of water between the town of Great Falls and Fort Benton, a 
distance of about 45 miles. These measurements are supposed to 
have taken into account the amount added to Missouri River by Belt 
and Highwood creeks and by Giant Springs. That from the former 
two is inconsiderable, but the latter adds materially to the total flow. 

SUN KIVER. 

Sun River, the largest tributary of Missouri River in this district, 
rises high in the Lewis Mountains. The main stream is formed by 
the junction of North and South forks of Sun River, which takes 
place about 3 miles northeast of Augusta in the northwest corner of 
T. 8 N., R. 5 W. From this point the stream pursues an easterly course 
through an open valley to Great Falls, where it joins Missouri River. 
The area drained by Sun River comprises the greater portion of that 
part of the high eastern slope of the Rocky Mountain Front Range 
extending from parallel 47° 30' to 48° and a portion of the adjoining 
Plains province 25 to 30 miles wide extending from the base of the 
mountains eastward to the vicinity of Great Falls. The high moun- 
tainous portion of its drainage area is covered with snow throughout 
the greater part of the year, while on the adjoining plains more arid 
conditions prevail. The principal tributary of Sun River from the 
north is Muddy Creek, which drains the high plateau between Sun 
and Teton rivers, emptying into the Sun near Vaughn. It is an in- 
termittent stream of minor importance. From the south Sims Creek 
joins Sun River near the town of Sims, and a few miles farther west 
Spring and Dry creeks come in from the same side. Sun River has a 
large flow of water, the maximum being reached during the early 
summer months when the largest amount of snow is melted on the 
mountains. By far the greater part of the water of this stream comes 
from North Fork of Sun River, which is several times larger than 
South Fork, having its drainage area higher on the slopes of the 
Lewis Mountains. Discharge measurements of Sun River at the 
town of Sun River, about 20 miles above its mouth, are given below : 

Discharge measurements of Sun River at Sun River, Mont., 1906. 



Date. 


Hydrographer. 


Second-feet. 


April 10 

April 15 

May 3 


Morse and Edson 


344 


H . M . Morse 


359 


G. Edson 


684 


May 21 


do 


1,240 


May 22... 


do 


1,160 


May 30... 


do 


2,140 
1,510 




Edson and Richards 


July 16 . 




506 




do 


74 




...do 


204 




Follansbee and Richards 


396 


November 16 . . 


do 


hi. 440 









" See Bibliography, p. 9. 



Ice running ; value doubtful. 




A. CROOKED FALLS OF MISSOURI RIVER, NEAR GREAT FALLS, MONT. 




B. BIG FALLS OF MISSOURI RIVER, 9 MILES NORTHEAST OF GREAT FALLS, MONT. 



SUKFACE WATEES. 



3±- 



SMITH RIVER. 

Smith River has its source far to the southeast in the vicinity of 
the Castle Mountains, and flowing northwest drains the highland 
area between the Big Belt and Little Belt mountains. It enters the 
area described near the center of the south line of T. 17 N., R. 3 E., and 
flowing in a northeasterly direction joins Missouri River at a point 
near Ulm. Within the area described the stream flows in a meander- 
ing course through a deep but narrow valley. The gradient of the 
lower course of the stream is about 7 feet to the mile. The largest 
tributary of Smith River is Hound Creek, entering from the west, 
near Orr. It drains the northern end of the Big Belt Mountains, 
some of its tributaries extending high up the slopes of that range. 
From the east three intermittent streams enter Smith River — Boston, 
Ming, and Goodwin coulees. Smith River has a flow of nearly 400 
second-feet during the months of May and June, but in the late fall 
its flow is very much smaller, as is shown by the following discharge 
measurements : 

Discharge measurements of Smith River at Truly, Mont., 1905-6. 



Date. 


Hydrographer. 


Second-feet. 


1905. 
March 7 


Porter and Bird 


163 


May 11 




125 


September 1 . . . 


A. P. Porter 


31 


1906. 
April 9 


Morse and Edson 


423 


May 11 


G. Edson 


397 


July 12 


R. Richards 


317 


November 28 . . 


.....do 


a 79. 9 









Wading section. 



TETON RIVER. 



The northern portion of the area treated in this report is drained by 
Teton River. This stream has its source on the eastern slope of the 
Lewis Mountains, but it does not extend far back into the uplift. 
After leaving the mountains it pursues a southeasterly course to the 
vicinity of Chouteau, where it makes a pronounced bend and flows 
northeastward past Collins and joins Missouri River in the vicinity 
of Fort Benton. Its largest affluents are Muddy and Deep creeks, 
the former entering from the northwest below Collins, and the latter 
from the south near Chouteau. These streams both rise in the foot- 
hills of the mountains and have a continuous flow throughout the year. 
The flow of Teton River is not large, especially in the vicinity of 
Chouteau, but near the mountains the amount is greater. At a point 
about 7 miles above Chouteau the stream bed is often dry throughout 
the late summer months, but, while the surface flow of this portion 



t)2 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

of the stream is small, there is apparently a very strong underflow. 
Spring Creek, a tributary of this stream, is formed by a number of 
springs having their source in the valley wash. It rises in Teton Val- 
ley in the northwest part of T. 24 N., E. 5 W., and flows roughly 
parallel to Teton River at a distance of one-half to three-fourths of a 
mile from it for about 10 or 12 miles to where it enters the main 
stream. Discharge measurements of Teton River have been made 
near Belleview and in the vicinity of Chouteau. These are given in 
the following tables : 

Discharge measurements of Teton River near Belleview, Mont., 190-'{-1906. 



Date. 


Hydrographer. 


Second-feet. 


1904. 


A. P. Porter 


58 


1905. 
May 8 


Stockman and Porter 


48 


October 12 


Gordon Edson 


56 




do 


51 


1906. 

April 12 

May 9 


G. Edson.' 


25.2 


do 


43.1 


June 22 




17 









Discharge measurements of Teton River near Chouteau, Mont., 190J/-5. 



Date. 


Hydrographer. 


Second-feet. 


1904. 


A. P. Porter 


7.3 


1905. 
May 9 


Stockman and Porter 


8 


October 13 . . . 




3 


1906. 

April 13 

Mav9 




7.2 


G. Edson 


4.6 






7.8 









BELT CREEK. 



This stream rises in the northern part of the Little Belt Moun- 
tains, flows north across the east-central part of the district, draining 
the territory lying west of the Highwood Mountains, and entering 
the Missouri about 12 miles northeast of Great Falls. It is a vig- 
orous mountain stream, which carries a large flow of water in its 
upper course throughout all seasons of the year, especially near the 
mountains, but at the town of Belt all this water sinks to an under- 
flow (see PI. II, A) during the late summer months, leaving the 
stream bed dry. The loss is probably due to the fact that soft porous 
sandstone forms the floor of Belt Creek valley. A view of the dry 



SUKFACE WATERS. 



33 



bed of Belt Creek is shown in PL II, A. From a short distance 
below the town of Belt to its mouth the stream has a small but con- 
tinuous flow. Discharge measurements above the town of Belt are 
as follows: 

Discharge measurements of Belt Creek near Belt, Mont., in 1905-6. 



Date. 


Hydrographer. 


Second-feet. 


1905. 




8.0 


May 12 




7.8 




A. P. Porter 


578 


1906. 

April 20 

May 18. 


G. Edson 


4.62 


do 


160 


May 19 


do 


155 




do 


357 


July 14... 




190 


November 10 . . 


Follansbee and Richards 


3.55 









OTTER CREEK. 



Otter Creek is one of the largest tributaries entering Belt Creek 
from the east. It rises on the northeastern slope of the Little Belt 
Mountains near Barker and flows north for about 6 miles, thence 
northwest, joining Belt Creek near Armington. It receives several 
small spring-fed tributaries from the south, including Little Otter 
Creek, Bundy Coulee, Swan Coulee, and Ford Creek. Its branches 
from the north, which have their source in the Highwood Mountains, 
are Williams and Cora creeks — the former entering near Spion Kop 
and the latter 2 miles above its mouth. No discharge measurements 
have been made of Otter Creek, but it has considerable water through- 
out all seasons of the year, which is supplied mainly by a number of 
large springs along its course. 



OTHER SMALL STREAMS. 



The area lying between Belt Creek and Smith River is drained by 
Box Elder Creek and Sand Coulee. Box Elder Creek rises on the 
high plateaus about 3 miles west of Riceville, flows northward in a 
direction roughly parallel to Belt Creek, and enters the Missouri about 
9 miles northeast of Great Falls. This stream carries only a small 
flow of water. Sand Coulee, an intermittent stream with a large 
drainage area, is formed by the union of several small canyon tribu- 
taries southeast of Stockett. It continues northward to a point about 
6 miles below Stockett, where it makes a sharp turn to the west and 
meanders through a wide level-floored valley for about 7 miles, enter- 
ing Missouri River about 4 miles above Great Falls. That portion 
of its valley through which the stream flows from the point where it 
makes the sharp turn to the west is a part of the preglacial valley of 
54572— irr 221—09 3 



34 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

the Missouri, which extends from the mouth of Sand Coulee eastward 
to Box Elder Creek and then northeastward to near the mouth of 
Belt Creek, where it reunites with the present channel. 

East of Otter Creek there is a prominent ridge constituting a low 
divide between the Highwood and Little Belt mountains which has 
been named the Otter Creek divide. East of this divide the drainage 
is all to the northeast into Arrow Creek, which is a small tributary of 
the Missouri, entering a short distance above the mouth of Judith 
Eiver. Arrow Creek, which has its source on the southern slope of 
the Highwood Mountains, flows eastward, passing out of this district 
in T. 18 N., R. 11 E. Its principal affluent is Surprise Creek, which 
rises at the base of Wolf Butte and pursues a northeasterly course, 
uniting with the main stream outside of the area here described. 
Running Wolf Creek rises higher up the slopes of the Little Belt 
Mountains farther to the southeast and flows northeasterly past Stan- 
ford Buttes, joining Judith River outside of the district. East of 
Running Wolf Creek there are several small creeks crossing the ex- 
treme southeast corner of the district which belong to the Judith 
River system. These are Skull, Willow, and Sage creeks. 

LAKES AND SWAMPS. 

The lakes occurring within the Great Falls district are of two 
kinds — those on the table-land, which hold flood water during a small 
portion of the year, and the artificial lakes, which are used as storage 
reservoirs for the most important irrigation systems. The largest of 
the natural lakes is Benton Lake, located on the highlands about 9 
miles nearly due north of Great Falls. It is about 1 mile wide and 2^ 
miles long, and is said to have formerly held water all the year. At 
present the flood water which it receives during the spring sinks 
away, leaving the lake bed dry throughout the entire summer. It is 
situated in front of the terminal moraine of the Keewatin ice sheet 
and is probably of glacial origin. Freezeout Lake, situated in the 
center of an area of glacial lake deposits in Freezeout Basin, holds 
a small amount of water a portion of the year. There is also another 
small, dry lake on the plains about 3 miles southeast of Dutton. 
Northeast of Priest Buttes are two artificial lakes, known as Priest 
Lakes, which are formed by seepage water from the Cascade Land 
Company's canal, and south of Ralston Gap there is a small lake used 
as a storage reservoir. Lakes or reservoirs are of frequent occurrence 
throughout the district. One of considerable size is found on the 
table-land north of Lowry, and another, now abandoned, south of 
Square Butte, in the Little Muddy Creek valley. Many other smaller 
lakes of this character are found throughout the district, the locations 
of which are given on the geologic map. On Burton Bench, near 



UNDERGROUND WATERS. 35 

Teuchot home ranch, there are a number of small lagoons or lakes 
fed by springs which contain water throughout the year. 

To the west of the area treated in this report and along the base of 
the Lewis Mountains there is a zone in which local mountain glaciers 
have deposited morainal material over wide districts bordering the 
larger streams. Throughout these glaciated areas there are innumer- 
able small lakes and swamps which furnish water to the mountain 
streams crossing them. 

UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

GENERAL STATEMENTS. 

The water-bearing rocks of the Great Falls region are confined 
mainly to the basal Colorado and the Kootenai formations, where a 
number of sandstone beds occur which are porous and imbibe water 
freely when conditions are favorable. There are other formations 
within the district that have sandstones that probably contain more 
or less water. These are the Eagle and Claggett sandstones of the 
Montana formation and the coarse-grained conglomeratic sandstone 
of the Ellis formation. Around the sides of Square and Fort Shaw 
buttes a number of small springs issue from the base of the Eagle 
sandstone. In the Kootenai formation several water-bearing horizons 
are found. The massive gray sandstone overlying the coal, which 
ranges in thickness from 25 to 80 feet, is the source of a number of 
springs along Otter Creek, and wherever the coal is mined, especially 
where the sandstone forms the roof, considerable difficulty is en- 
countered with water from this formation. Above the sandstone 
overlying the coal there are a number of massive sandstones inter- 
bedded with red shale, which, when they occupy summits of plateaus, 
have numerous small springs issuing from their base. These 
Kootenai sandstone beds are the sources of numerous small springs 
wherever they are exposed from the eastern margin of the field to 
Smith River. West of Stockett, however, they are overlain by basal 
sandstones of the Colorado, which cap the plateau summits west and 
south of Sand Coulee, extending to beyond Missouri River and in- 
cluding the bench land north of Ulm. Throughout this area springs 
are of frequent occurrence at the base of the Colorado sandstone, and 
wherever well borings on the summits of the plateau have entered this 
sandstone a good supply of water has usually been obtained. 

SPRINGS. 
DISTRIBUTION. 

One of the most valuable sources of domestic and stock water 
supply in the Great Falls district is found in the numerous springs 
which occur along the upper courses of the smaller mountain streams 



36 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

and in the valleys of the larger streams throughout the lower Plains 
country. Along the northern slope of the Little Belt Mountains 
springs are very abundant. The zone bordering the mountains is 
essentially a plateau region traversed by numerous mountain streams 
which flow through deeply cut valleys. In the bottom of these val- 
leys and along their sides at different elevations above the streams 
springs of moderate flow occur at frequent intervals. Their source 
is the various water-bearing sandstones of the Kootenai formation, 
which extend southward far up the slopes to the high hilly zone bor- 
dering the mountains where there is an increased precipitation, and 
the sandstones absorb a large amount of water. Lower down on the 
plains the mountain streams cut and expose these sandstones, leaving 
the water free to escape as springs in the sides of the plateaus and in 
the lower portions of the valleys. Springs of this character are most 
abundant along Otter and Belt creeks, Sand Coulee, Smith Eiver, and 
their principal tributaries (see PI. V,A). They are usually not large, 
but afford a steady supply of good water when properly developed. 
West of Missouri River springs are less numerous. Several are found 
issuing from the base of the Eagle sandstone on the sides of Square 
and Fort Shaw buttes. At one locality on the west side of Square 
Butte water from a number of these small springs which have been 
developed is piped 2 miles to the Toman stock ranch, where it is 
utilized for domestic purposes (see PL II, B). On the north side 
of Sun River the high gravel-capped plateau is more or less dissected 
by canyons leading southward. In these canyons and in the heads 
of coulees tributary to them springs are frequent. They have their 
source in the gravel terrace which caps the plateau, or in the under- 
lying Eagle sandstone. The flow, though not large, is continuous, the 
water being used mainly for stock purposes by the Flowerree Cattle 
Company. A few small springs are found along Muddy Creek of 
Sun River northwest of Vaughn and along the base of the bluffs at 
the upper end of Burton Bench. 

In Sun and Teton River valleys there are a few large springs which 
derive their water from the underflow of these streams. Probably 
the largest spring of this character is found in Teton Valley about 
7 miles above Chouteau, where a sufficient amount of water issues 
from the valley wash to supply a stream of considerable size, known 
as Spring Creek. In Sun River valley at Lowry is a spring of 
similar size, which is utilized for both irrigation and stock purposes. 
This spring has a large flow of excellent water, which enters Sun 
River a short distance below Lowry. Another spring, somewhat 
smaller, is found on the opposite side of the river at Skinner and 
Heikie's ranch, and farther down the river, a short distance above 
the intrusive dike which crosses Sun River valley about 1 mile west 
of Fort Shaw, there is a small area where numerous springs issue 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 221 PL. V 




A. SPRING AT BASE OF COLORADO SANDSTONE, 12 MILES SOUTH OF GREAT FALLS, MONT. 




B. GIANT SPRINGS, NEAR GREAT FALLS, MONT. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS. 37 

from the valley wash. Springs are not infrequent in Sun River val- 
ley between Lowry and Augusta. At Sam Larkin's ranch, 6 miles 
below Augusta, a spring issues from the base of a low gravel-capped 
terrace, and has a strong flow of water throughout the year. Other 
springs of a similar character examined in this part of Sun River 
valley are given in the table on pages 42-50, with their source, quality, 
and approximate yield. 

A few springs are found along Missouri River between Cascade and 
Great Falls which are used for domestic and stock purposes, although 
in the majority of cases in this vicinity the water supply is derived 
from shallow wells. Along the base of the Big Belt Mountains on 
the east side of the river springs are more numerous, and in many 
instances they have been given the chief consideration in locating 
ranches. 

GIANT SPRINGS. 

Near Great Falls are some very large springs which present unique 
geologic features and an interesting question as to the source of the 
water (see PL V, B). These springs, locally known as Giant Springs, 
are located on the south bank of Missouri River about 3 miles below 
Great Falls. They have a very large flow of relatively pure water, 
which appears at the surface through large joints in a medium to 
coarse-grained sandstone belonging to the Kootenai or lower Cre- 
taceous rocks. On either side of the main spring for a short distance 
are smaller springs flowing from the joints, and directly opposite it 
in the bed of the river there is a large spring, which is apparent 
during low water. The Giant Springs were discovered by Captain 
Lewis, of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, in 1804, and in his 
description were spoken of as the " largest fountain in the United 
States." 

According to measurements made by E. T. Nettleton a the flow of 
these springs is approximately 638 cubic feet per second, an amount 
which, converted into gallons, is the equivalent -of over 400,000,000 
gallons every twenty-four hours — a veritable underground river. 
The fact that the water of Giant Springs issues from rocks at the 
water's edge and in the bed of the river renders it difficult to 
measure their exact flow. In order to ascertain this amount, meas- 
urements were taken of the total flow of Missouri River above and 
below the springs; the difference between these two measurements 
is assumed to be the quantity furnished to the river by the- springs. 
It is readily seen from the above figures that these springs rank 
among the largest in the United States. The water, which boils up 
with considerable force, is clear, blue, and relatively pure, containing 
no more dissolved salts than the average well water of the region. 
It has a temperature of about 50° F. 

a See Bibliography, p. 9. 



38 GEOLOGY AND WATEES OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

No spring deposits occur in the immediate vicinity of Giant 
Springs, and the water is not generally regarded as possessing thera- 
peutic value. It is not utilized at present, but is alloAved to flow 
into the river. There are, however, a few improvements, such as 
sidewalks, etc., which make it possible for tourists to view the springs 
from the most advantageous points. 

A chemical analysis of the water was made several years ago by 
James A. Dodge, of the University of Wisconsin, and a field analysis 
of the water was made during the past field season by W. R. Calvert. 
These analyses are given below. 

Analyses of water of Giant Springs near Great Falls, Mont. 

MINERAL ANALYSIS. 

[Grains per gallon. 1 

CaSO* 14. 04 

CaC0 3 4. 38 

Mg00 3 4. 98 

NaCl . 56 

Traces of borates and potassium and lithium. 

FIELD ANALYSIS. 

[Parts per million.] 

Turbidity 

Color 

Iron _ 

Calcium Moderate. 

Total hardness 97 

Total alkalinity 340 

Alkaline carbonates 

Alkaline-earth carbonates , 339 

Sulphates 300 

Chlorides 10 

From a careful study of the geologic relations in the vicinity of 
Great Falls, it is believed by the writer that the water of Giant 
Springs is derived from the subriver flow of the Missouri which 
leaves the valley of that stream near the mouth of Sand Coulee as an 
underflow and passes down its preglacial channel, which extends up 
Sand Coulee, into Gibson Flat, an oxbow in the old river channel. 
From here by a subterranean passage through porous Cretaceous sand- 
stone and sandy shale, which dip in a favorable direction for its trans- 
mission, it makes its escape to the present Missouri River, where it 
appears in the form of Giant Springs (see Pis. V, B, and VI). It 
is further believed by the writer that the jointing, which is here well 
developed with the major joint planes extending in a north-south 
direction, is an important factor in the underground movement of 
the water. It is also possible that a fault in this vicinity further 
facilitates the underground passage of the water, but no positive 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 221 PL. VI 




MAP OF GREAT FALLS DISTRICT, MONTANA, SHOWING PREGLACIAL CHANNEL OF MISSOURI 
RIVER AND COURSE OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS. 39 

evidence of this was seen. Well borings in lower Sand Coulee and 
Gibson Flat demonstrate that the materials filling the old valley are 
largely coarse river sediments, well adapted for rapid percolation of 
water. 

From the above it is readily seen that along the supposed under- 
ground course of the water from the mouth of Sand Coulee to where 
it appears at the surface as springs, the physical conditions are such 
as to permit the passage of a large volume of water, an amount be- 
lieved to be equivalent to that furnished by the Giant Springs. 

WELLS. 

While springs are the principal source of domestic water supply 
in the Great Falls region, there are a number of localities, especially 
in the larger valleys, where the greater part of such water is derived 
from shallow wells rarely exceeding 20 feet in depth. On the sum- 
mits of some of the plateaus bordering the Little Belt Mountains, 
where dry farming is successfully practiced, wells obtain water at 
depths varying from 100 to 300 feet, depending on the locality. To 
the west and north of Great Falls, throughout the highland districts, 
wells are usually shallow, rarely being sunk below the base of the 
gravel terraces, which vary from 25 to 40 feet in thickness and cover 
extensive areas. In the larger valleys traversing the western part of 
the district wells are usually shallower than those on the highland, 
and water is more abundant. Throughout Burton Bench, north of 
Teton River, they vary from 20 to 100 feet, the deeper ones being 
artesian. A few deep wells have been dug in the vicinity of Great 
Falls, three by the Great Falls Meat Company on the table-land east 
of Great Falls, two by the Copeland Brothers near the south end of 
Sun River bridge, and others farther up Missouri River, one on 
Odell ranch and another at Ulm. The deepest boring in this portion 
of Montana occurs about 6 miles east of Dutton, where an oil prospect 
hole, known as the Banatyne well, has been sunk to a depth of 1,500 
feet. Records of the Copeland Brothers, Banatyne, and Odell wells 
are given below, and on subsequent pages occur well tables giving 
the location, depth, quantity, and quality of water of a number of 
representative wells in the Great Falls district. 

Records of Copeland Brothers' wells near the south end of Sun River bridge, 

Great Falls, Mont. 

WELL NO. 1. 

Feet. 

Fine sand 0- 4 

Gumbo 4-15 

Blue clay 15-31 

Sand and gravel, water bearing 31-33 

Red sandstone- 33-43 



40 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

Records of Copeland Brothers' wells near the south end of Sun River bridge, 
Great Falls, Mont — Continued. 

WELL NO. 1— Continued. 

Feet. 

Ferruginous sandstone 43- 47 

Blue shale 47- 59 

Gray shale 59- 85 

Gray sandy rock 85-100 

Light-red rock 100-105 

Dark-red rock 105-112 

Gray compact sandstone 112-122 

Blue shale i 122-134 

Red rock 134-144 

Sandstone with shaly layers 144-147 

Light-red rock— __ 147-157 

Soapstone 157-227 

Impure sandstone 227-229 

Gray shale 229-244 

Impure sandstone 244-247 

Gray shale i 247-252 

Impure sandstone 252-255 

Gray shale. 255-263 

Impure sandstone 263-265 

Gray shale. 265-277 

Sandstone and shale. 277-282 

WELL NO. 2. 

Fine sand 0- 8 

Medium fine sand 8- 25 

Gumbo 25- 36 

Blue clay 36- 52 

Red rock 52- 62 

Ferruginous sandstone. 62- 66 

Blue shale 66- 81 

Red rock 81-103 

Fine gray sandstone 103-107 

Light-red rock 107-123 

Blue shale 123-131 

Gray sandstone 131-143 

Brown shale 143-157 

Gray shale 157-167 

Soapstone 167-207 

Light-red rock 207-219 

Impure sandstone 219-223 

Dark-red rock 223-233 

Black shale 233-247 

Light-red rock 247-250 

Gray shale. 250-260 

Impure sandstone 260-263 

Gray shale. 203-265 

Impure sandstone 205-260 

Blue shale 266-274 

Impure sandstone 274-276 



UNDERGROUND WATERS. 



41 



Records of Copeland Brothers' wells near the south end of Sun River bridge, 
Great Falls, Mont — Continued. 

WELL NO. 2— Continued. 

Feet. 

Dark shale. 276-280 

Impure sandstone 280-283 

Gray shale_ 283-289 

Blue sandstone. 289-297 

Brown shale 297-300 

Blue sandstone 300-310 

Impure limestone 310-318 

White limestone 318-370 

Brown limestone 370-417 

White limestone 417-459 

Blue limestone 459-519 

Impure limestone 519-541 

Brown limestone 541-569 

Blue limestone 569-581 

White limestone _■ 581-643 

Record of Batiatyne well, 6 miles east of Dutton, Mont. 

Feet. 

Yellow clay 0- 74 

Shale 74- 280 

Sand, containing salt water and gas 280- 285 

Sandy shale 285- 358 

Black sand 358- 365 

Shale 365- 500 

Sand, containing salt water 500- 509 

Sand and gritty shale 509- 605 

Soft, white conglomerate 605- 780 

Hard conglomerate 780- 870 

Fine blue sand 870- 880 

Hard blue shale 880- 900 

Hard shale in thin layers 900- 950 

Dark-blue shale 950- 975 

Black shale 975-1,040 

Hard bluish sandstone 1,040-1,130 

Black shale -_ 1,130-1,160 

Red limestone 1,160-1,200 

Red sandstone 1,200-1,240 

It is believed that the so-called red limestone encountered at a 
depth of 1,160 feet below the surface represents the upper part of the 
Kootenai formation. 

Record of Odell well in Missouri River, south of Great Falls, Mont. 

Feet. 

Alluvium 0- 20 

Sand 20-145 

Clay 145-205 

Gravel 205-212 



42 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 



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60 GEOLOGY AND WATEES OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 

Throughout the eastern part of the area examined, especially that 
lying east of Belt Creek, the geologic conditions are in general favor- 
able for the occurrence of artesian water. The rocks consist of 
medium to coarse grained massive sandstone and sandy shale over- 
lain by impervious shale and clay. They dip gradually to the north- 
east away from the mountains, so that the streams passing over the 
upturned ends of this porous sandstone and shale lose much of their 
water. This water in passing underground is soon carried beneath 
impervious shale farther down on the plains, where it is available as 
artesian water when the overlying shale is penetrated by deep-well 
borings. These conditions obtain throughout a zone of varying width 
along Sage, Willow, Skull, Running Wolf, Surprise, and Arrow 
Creek valleys. 

Throughout the area lying between Belt Creek and Smith River 
the general geologic and structural conditions are not favorable for 
the occurrence of artesian water. There is, however, a shallow flow- 
ing well of local origin in Box Elder Creek which probably derives its 
water from the valley filling. In this general vicinity the sandstone 
members of the Kootenai and the base of the Colorado formation, 
which are the principal artesian water-bearing beds to the east, oc- 
cupy summits of more or less detached plateaus, which rise to the 
south toward the highland tying between the Big Belt and Little 
Belt mountains. As these sandstone members, which in other lo- 
calities are artesian water-bearing, occupy only the summits of the 
higher table-lands far above the mountain streams draining the area, 
the only water which they can receive is that derived from rainfall. 
A portion of this is disposed of by run-off and evaporation, while the 
remainder is free to escape in the numerous marginal springs which 
occur along the edge of the above-described plateaus ; hence the region 
is one where artesian water is not to be expected. 

From Smith River westward along the base of the adjacent moun- 
tain ranges the geologic and structural conditions, although different 
from those above described, are equally unfavorable for the occur- 
rence of artesian water in the adjoining plains region. Along the 
northern base of Big Belt Mountains the sedimentary rocks, which are 
of upper Cretaceous age, are cut by igneous rocks over extensive areas, 
thus preventing them from extending into the higher mountain 
regions where they might be free to absorb water. The same is true 
along the base of the Lewis Range bordering this area on the west. 
Cretaceous rocks, instead of dipping normally away from the uplift, 
owing to the overthrust fault above described dip toward the moun- 
tains, passing under the older Algonkian rocks, which form the 
higher portion of the range. In the region lying west of Great Falls 
the water-bearing sandstones of the Kootenai and the base of the 



UNDEKGKOUND WATERS. 61 

Colorado formation are not exposed, but are covered by several hun- 
dred feet of upper Cretaceous sediment, consisting mainly of impervi- 
ous shale with sandstone members in the upper part. Under these 
conditions it is apparent that rocks which are water-bearing on the 
east are on the west, along the base of the Lewis Mountains, com- 
pletely sealed off from a surface water supply by a great thickness 
of overlying impervious shale of upper Cretaceous age. The sand- 
stone beds in the upper part of the upper Cretaceous formation also 
dip toward the mountains in a direction opposite to the flow of the 
streams which pass over them. Under the above conditions it is 
obvious that all the water derived from the melting snow of the 
Lewis Range must either be carried along the valleys of these vari- 
ous streams as a surface flow or an underflow, or be absorbed by the 
local glacial deposits which cover the formations along the base of 
the Lewis Range. 

From the above it is apparent that the structural relations of the 
geologic formations in the plains region bordering the Lewis Moun- 
tains, including Sun and Teton river valleys, are unfavorable for 
the occurrence of deep-seated artesian water. Small areas with arte- 
sian water of local origin are, however, scattered through this dis- 
trict. Along Muddy Creek, a tributary of Teton River, there is a 
small district, comprising about 20 square miles, in which a number 
of successful artesian wells have been obtained. The depth of these 
wells varies from 16 to 100 feet. The water is relatively pure and is 
used for both domestic and irrigation purposes. It is obtained from 
a coarse gravel . bed, which is overlain by glacial clay of variable 
thickness. This artesian area is believed to be supplied with water 
from the stream in Ralston Gap and upper Muddy Creek. These 
streams contain numerous swamps in their upper courses, but the 
water in passing downstream sinks to an underflow a few miles above 
the artesian area, where it apparently passes under the impervious 
glacial clay and becomes available as artesian water when this im- 
pervious overlying clay is penetrated by well borings. In the lower 
part of Sun River valley, between Sun River and Great Falls, there 
are a few shallow, wells. The flow of these wells is due to local 
artesian conditions, which extend over only small areas. The water 
is obtained in each case from gravel lying in the lower part of the 
valley filling. This gravel is locally covered by impervious clay, thus 
producing artesian conditions. 

WATER SUPPLY BY DISTRICTS. 
GEYSEE DISTRICT. 

Throughout the area lying to the east of Otter Creek divide the 
underground water supply is derived mainly from springs, which 
occur at varying intervals along nearly all of the mountain streams. 
These springs are more or less numerous in the region adjacent to 



62 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

the inclosing mountain ranges, as is shown by the water-resource 
map (PL VII), but farther out on the plains they are fewer in num- 
ber. Shallow wells occur here and there along the stream valleys. 
They vary in depth from 15 to 25 feet and afford an ample supply of 
good water, but owing to the large number of springs only a few 
wells have been sunk. Throughout this district the prospects for 
artesian water along Lonetree, Arrow, Surprise, Running Wolf, 
Skull, and Sage Creek valleys are very favorable. The region, as 
previously stated, is underlain by beds of porous sandstone belonging 
to the Kootenai formation, which in their outcrop area bordering 
the Little Belt Mountains absorb more or less water from mountain 
streams. In their extension northeastward these sandstone beds pass 
under impervious Colorado shale producing ideal artesian conditions. 
The Kootenai rocks underlying this region contain a bed of work- 
able coal which has been prospected extensively and is mined at pres- 
ent at several localities. In 1901 the Sand Coulee Mining Company 
made extensive diamond-drill borings in search of coal along Sage 
Creek valley. Five holes were bored, ranging in depth from 400 to 
TOO feet, three in Sage Creek valley in T. 15 N., R. 12 E., one in a 
small tributary of Willow Creek near Hughes's ranch, and one about 
3 miles east of Sage Creek Sheep Company's home ranch. A flow of 
good water was reported from each of these borings ; the largest flow, 
however, was secured at Sage Creek Sheep Company's home ranch. 
The water from this well is stored in a small reservoir and used for 
irrigation purposes. According to the best information which could 
be obtained concerning these borings, the water in each case was de- 
rived from a gray sandstone, probably constituting one of the basal 
members of the Kootenai formation. The occurrence of these arte- 
sian wells in upper Sage Creek valley has a very important signifi- 
cance, for it demonstrates that artesian water can be secured at mod- 
erate depths throughout the upper courses of several small mountain- 
stream valleys in the immediate vicinity, an area comprising a consid- 
erable acreage of rich agricultural land. The prospects for artesian 
water are equally favorable in the upper part of the Skull Creek val- 
ley for a short distance northeast of Skull Butte, and it is possible 
that small flows might be obtained throughout the wide valley of 
Running Wolf Creek in the vicinity of Stanford. While no practical 
tests have been made of the artesian water capacity of the Kootenai 
sandstone underlying Lonetree Creek valley in the vicinity of Geyser, 
the geologic conditions in this district are favorable for flowing wells. 
The porous sandstone of the Kootenai formation dips gradually north- 
eastward away from the Little Belt Mountains, passing under the 
impervious Benton shale, which in the vicinity of Geyser and along 
Lonetree Creek valley could be penetrated by relatively shallow 
borings. 



G R EAT FALL S RE ( i I ( > X 

MOXTAXA 




UNDERGROUND WATERS. 63 

OTTEE CREEK DISTRICT. 

The Otter Creek district is arbitrarily taken to include the area 
between Otter Creek divide and Belt Creek. It has an abundant 
w ater supply, which is derived largely from springs. A few shallow 
wells are found along Belt Creek valley and its tributaries, especially 
in the vicinity of Belt. Shallow wells are also not infrequent on the 
higher slopes bordering the Highwood and Little Belt mountains. 
Along Otter Creek numerous springs from the Kootenai sandstone 
occurring at frequent intervals either in the bottom of the valleys or 
on the sides of the bluffs furnish an ample amount of good water and 
make it generally unnecessary to sink wells. The tributaries of Otter 
Creek from the south, which drain the high plateaus, are also well 
supplied with spring water from the same source. North of Otter 
Creek, especially on the higher slopes bordering the Highwood Moun- 
tains, there is a strong underflow in the bottom of all the coulees, 
which is derived from melting snow higher on the mountain slopes. 
The water thus absorbed in the heads of the coulees high on the slopes 
appears at the surface lower down in their course in the form of small 
springs, or it can be easily reached by shallow wells. 

GREAT FALLS DISTRICT. 

Under the Great Falls district is described the territory lying south 
of Missouri River between Belt Creek and Smith River. As stated 
above it is essentially a plateau region more or less dissected by can- 
yons. Throughout the lower part of the district, on the plains east 
of Great Falls, water for domestic purposes is apparently difficult to 
obtain, excepting along Box Elder Creek valley, where a number of 
shallow wells furnish a large amount. Several wells have been dug 
by the Great Falls Meat Company immediately east of Great Falls. 
The depths of these vary from 150 to 300 feet, and in no instance has 
the quality and quantity of the water been entirely satisfactory. 
Farther to the south and east springs are the chief source of water 
supply, although a few wells have been sunk. As a .rule wells in this 
portion of the district are not successful, and it is believed that the 
most satisfactory source of domestic water supply is to be found in 
the development of the small springs which are more or less abundant. 
At Stockett and Sand Coulee a few wells have been bored, which are 
described on page TO, and on the high plateaus southeast of these 
towns deep borings have been made, which usually failed to secure a 
satisfactory amount of water. In the vicinity of Stockett there is a 
local doming of the formations, which exposes the Madison limestone 
for a considerable distance along Sand Coulee and in Cottonwood 
and Straight coulees. Wells sunk in this limestone fail to find water, 
for the upper part of the formation is not water bearing. The Juras- 
sic and Cretaceous formations overlying the Carboniferous limestone 



64 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GREAT EALLS REGION, MONT. 

in this vicinity are relatively thin, but they thicken to both the east 
and the west. Wells bored on the plateaus penetrate the water-bear- 
ing sandstone of the Kootenai formation within a distance of 200 to 
300 feet from the surface. This sandstone in the vicinity of Stockett 
and Sand Coulee is not heavily saturated with water, notwithstanding 
that it is the source of many small springs. The scarcity of water is 
probably due to the fact, as previously described, that in its southern 
extension the sandstone caps the higher hills, where the only water 
which it can absorb is from rainfall and melting snow. In sinking a 
well in this general region whenever the limestone is reached the 
boring should be discontinued, for it indicates that all the water- 
bearing rocks of the region have been penetrated. Along the west 
side of the district, where the plateaus are capped by the basal sand- 
stone of the Colorado, springs are abundant along the side of the 
plateaus (see PL V, A), and in the valleys good water is obtained 
from shallow wells. Representative wells and springs in the Great 
Falls district are listed on pages 43-44 and 53-55. 

MISSOURI RIVER VALLEY DISTRICT. 

Along Missouri River valley from the base of Big Belt Mountains 
to a point about 2 miles above Riverdale there is a wide, open valley 
on the east side of the river in which an abundance of good water is 
obtained from wells at depths varying from 15 to 25 feet, depending 
on the distance from the river. A few wells in this valley have been 
sunk to greater depths in order to obtain a larger supply of water, 
but generally they have not been successful. Several unsuccessful 
attempts have also been made to secure artesian water in the valley. 
This is not practicable, owing to the adverse structural relations de- 
scribed on page 27. The water of shallow wells is derived from allu- 
vial sands and gravel, which have a variable thickness. To the east, 
on the summit of the high plateau bordering Smith River on the west, 
water is secured from wells at a considerably greater depth. Here 
the principal water-bearing horizon is the basal sandstone of the 
Colorado formation. Wells along this plateau vary from 50 to 150 
feet, and a sufficient quantity of water is usually obtained. The ex- 
tent of the basal Colorado sandstone in this region is shown on the 
geologic map (PL I). 

ULM BENCH. 

Throughout Ulm Bench, which lies southwest of Great Falls be- 
tween Missouri and Sun rivers, dry farming is extensively practiced, 
and the district has been divided into a number of small farms. On 
these farms wells have been bored which invariably obtain good 
water at depths rarely exceeding 100 feet. The water is derived from 
the lower part of the basal Colorado sandstone which caps Ulm 
Bench. Along the western margin of Ulm Bench, where the over- 



UNDERGROUND WATERS. 65 

lying Colorado shale occupies the surface, the well water is generally 
more or less mineralized and unfit for domestic purposes. 

AREA SOUTH OF SUN RIVER. 

West of Ulm Bench throughout the district lying south of Sun 
River the prospects for underground water are not favorable. The 
formation occupying the surface in this region is the Colorado shale, 
which rarely if ever contains pure water. The principal drainage 
of the area is Little Muddy Creek, a large intermittent stream 
draining a considerable district south of Square and Fort Shaw buttes. 
From several field analyses which have been made of water from 
wells in this valley it has been found to contain an unusually large 
amount of magnesium and other harmful salts. The well water in 
this region is so highly mineralized that it is rendered unfit even for 
stock purposes. The Eagle sandstone, which with the overlying 
igneous rock caps the prominent buttes in this region, is the only 
near source of potable water supply. 

West of Crown Butte throughout the lower part of the territory 
drained by Sims Creek prospects for underground water are more 
favorable. Here the Eagle sandstone underlies the surface, and, 
while no practical tests have been made, it is believed that wells sunk 
in this sandstone will probably secure good water. 

SUN RIVER VALLEY. 

Along the valley of Sun River water for domestic and stock pur- 
poses is derived from wells and springs or taken directly from the 
river. In the lower part of the valley between Sun River and Great 
Falls many shallow wells have been sunk which furnish a good supply. 
These derive their waters mainly from the valley wash. Farther up 
Sun River valley throughout the lower land water is obtained from 
shallow wells, but back from the streams the depth increases. At 
Fort Shaw a well was recently drilled and good water found at a 
depth of 101 feet. This, however, was at the mouth of a small coulee 
entering Sun River from the south, and it is possible the well did 
not penetrate the valley filling. In the vicinity of Augusta water is 
secured from wells at depths varying from 10 to 15 feet, but here the 
greater part of the domestic water supply is taken directly from 
Sun River, where, owing to the nearness to Lewis Mountains, it is 
relatively pure. The prospects for water from deep wells in Sun 
River valley are very poor, especially in the lower part. Between 
Manchester and Sims well borings extending through the valley 
filling will enter the nonwater-bearing Colorado shale, which has a 
thickness increasing from zero at Manchester to over 800 feet at Sims. 
Between Sims and Augusta wells sunk below the bottom of the valley 
54572— irr 221—09 5 



66 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

filling would enter the lower part of the Montana, which consists of 
sandstone and shale in alternating succession. The basal sandstone, 
comprising the Eagle formation, probably contains water, but the 
shale overlying the sandstone is believed not to be water bearing. 

HIGHLANDS NORTH OF SUN RIVER. 

Throughout the high plateau region between Sun and Teton rivers 
the prospects for underground water are not generally favorable. On 
that portion of the region lying west of Freezeout Lake no wells, so 
far as could be ascertained, have been bored which would test the 
water capacity of the extensive gravel terraces capping the highland, 
but it is evident from the numerous springs along their eastern mar- 
gin that they contain more or less water. Underneath the gravel of 
this district occur the Eagle and Claggett sandstones, which are also 
water bearing, so that it is believed little difficulty would be encoun- 
tered in securing a good supply of water from wells in this part of 
the field. On Freezeout Bench, however, a number of shallow wells 
have been sunk, which, with one exception, do not furnish a satisfac- 
tory amount of water. At Zimmerman's ranch a well 30 feet deep 
supplies only a small amount of alkali water, while 3 miles to the 
southwest, at Kruck's ranch, a good well of potable water was secured 
at about the same depth. Freezeout Bench is composed geologically 
of a thin veneer of gravel lying on the nonwater-bearing Colorado 
shale, consequently the only water which can be expected from wells 
on this bench is at the base of this gravel, which has a thickness vary- 
ing from 25 to 40 feet. The amount of water available at the base of 
the gravel will probably not be large, although this may vary locally, 
and in many cases it is apt to be hard, as the gravel carries consider- 
able lime as a cementing material. Wells penetrating the gravel and 
entering the Colorado shale would probably obtain alkali water, as 
this shale rarely furnishes good water. North of Freezeout Bench in 
some of the coulees tributary to Muddy Creek of Sun River there are 
small springs fed by the gravel terraces, and here and there a success- 
ful shallow well. 

FORT BENTON BENCH. 

East of the Montana and Great Northern Railway, between Great 
Falls and Collins, is an area of featureless plains comprising several 
townships and locally known as Fort Benton Bench, in which the 
prospects for underground water are very poor. Although this area 
was not examined in detail, it is known that over a great part of the 
district the surface formation is Colorado shale. The results of the 
Banatyne boring, 6 miles east of Dutton, demonstrate that the surface 
formation and the formations underlying to a depth of at least 1,500 
feet are not water bearing. Along Teton Valley, which crosses the 



UNDEBGKOUND WATEKS. 67 

northern part of the district, shallow wells can probably be obtained 
from the valley wash, although no detailed examination was made of 
this portion of the field, and it is believed that shallow wells furnish- 
ing a moderate supply of water could be secured in some of the small 
coulees draining northwestward into Teton River. 

TETON RIVER VALLEY. 

From the west margin of T. 25 N., R. 6 W., eastward as far as the 
investigation was carried, and especially to the mouth of Deep Creek, 
there is a strong underflow in Teton Valley. Wells at Chouteau ob- 
tain water at three distinct horizons, the first at 7 feet, the second at 
27 feet, and the third at 48 feet beneath the surface. There is no 
marked dissimilarity in the chemical character of the water found 
at these depths, and in many respects it resembles the water of Teton 
River. Springs occur in abundance in Teton Valley above Chouteau. 

Deep Creek Valley, a tributary of the Teton from the south, has 
a strong underflow, and an abundance of water is found at depths 
of 10 to 20 feet below the surface. At the head of Deep Creek are 
numerous small swamps and glacial lakes, which add materially to 
both the surface flow and the underflow of Deep Creek valley. 
North of Deep Creek there is a wide gravel-capped terrace extend- 
ing toward the mountains, throughout which water could probably 
be secured from wells not exceeding 30 feet in depth, the water occur- 
ring at the base of the gravel. North of this broad terrace there is 
a badlands district surrounding Teton Buttes, in which there is a 
scarcity of water. 

BURTON BENCH. 

Springs are not abundant in the vicinity of Chouteau outside of 
Teton River valley, and water for domestic purposes is sometimes 
difficult to obtain. An exception is found in Burton Bench, an area 
comprising about four townships, which lies north of Chouteau. 
Bench gravel, loosely cemented, caps this area, thinning gradually 
from a depth of 30 feet on the southwest to a mere sprinkling on the 
northeast. Immediately beneath this cap is impervious shale, causing 
the gravel to act as a reservoir for surface water. Before irrigation 
ditches had crossed Burton Bench water was obtained at a depth cor- 
responding to the thickness of the gravel, but the water plane has been 
gradually rising under the influence of irrigation until now an abun- 
dant supply is found at 10 to 12 feet beneath the surface. Outside the 
gravel-capped area water for stock and domestic purposes is taken di- 
rectly from the ditches, although it contains a considerable quantity of 
undesirable mineral matter. The average well has a depth of about 



68 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

60 feet, but is often too strongly impregnated with alkali to be pota- 
ble. A limited artesian basin of about 20 square miles occurs in the 
northeastern part of Burton Bench. It is described in detail in the 
next section. 

MUDDY CREEK ARTESIAN BASIN." 

General description. — Within an area extending about 6 miles west 
from where the terminal moraine of the Keewatin ice sheet crosses 
Muddy Creek valley in T. 25 N., K. 3 W., and having a width of 
about 3 miles, artesian water is obtained from coarse granitic gravel, 
overlain by impervious lacustrine clay, at moderate depths below the 
surface. The writer examined twenty-two flowing wells in this 
district, all of which furnish a good quality of water. Others that 
formerly flowed have become clogged by caving where the well was 
not cased. 

The water resources of this basin have not as yet been utilized to 
any great extent, partly because much of the area is used only for 
grazing and partly because water for irrigating purposes is readily 
available from the ditches crossing Burton Bench. In many cases 
the water is allowed to flow from the wells and no use is made of it, 
but in many instances outside of the ditch system it is utilized for 
irrigation as well as for stock and domestic purposes. Two wells in 
sec. 6, T. 25 N., R. 3 W., water 30 acres of alfalfa, and a group of 
wells in sec. 11, T. 25 N., R. 4 W., irrigate 100 acres of hay land. In 
general the wells are 2^ or 3 inches in diameter, as it was found b}^ 
experiment that a pipe of that size yielded the same flow as a larger 
one. The smaller size is the more advantageous, since wells of that 
diameter may be drilled by hand where the depth does not exceed 
75 or 80 feet. The method of drilling used in this vicinity is simple. 
A 1-inch iron rod twisted at one end into a spiral of the diameter 
desired is used as an auger. The stiff clay which must be penetrated 
is sufficiently adhesive to allow the drill to bring up a clean core 
several feet in length. The wells vary in depth from 16 to 100 feet, 
the deeper being as a rule along Muddy Creek. The variation in 
depth of these wells indicates that this stream is following rather 
closely its preglacial channel. Although practically all the artesian 
wells are south of Muddy Creek, it is probable that there is likewise 
a considerable area north of that stream where flowing wells might 
be obtained if, as seems probable, the preglacial valley extends later- 
ally in that direction as well as south. The eastern limits of the basin 
are defined by the moraine, and since the head of the artesian flow 
is in no case great, the largest reported being 35 feet, it is not probable 



" The description of artesian conditions in the Muddy Creek artesian basin is by W. R. 
Calvert. 



UNDERGROUND WATEKS. 69 

that a flow can be secured much farther west than the wells located 
in sec. 15, T. 6 N., E. 4 W., where the pressure is very weak. 

Source. — Brief mention has already been made (p. 61) of the prob- 
able source of the artesian water of Muddy Creek basin. The geologic 
structure of the region and the small head of the flowing wells pre- 
clude the theory of a distant or high source. That the artesian flows 
of this area are due to local conditions is evident from a study of the 
field. Some water may be supplied by Muddy Creek in its course 
through T. 26 N., E. 6 W., where the water sinks to an underflow, 
leaving the stream bed dry for a distance of several miles during the 
greater part of the year. Since apparently the entire flow reappears 
at the surface near Bynum, and the stream has not there cut through 
the lacustrine clays, it is not probable that Muddy Creek contributes 
much of the artesian water to Muddy Creek basin. On the contrary, 
the evidence indicates that the artesian basin is connected more di- 
rectly with the Teton through Ealston Gap. To the observer looking 
southwest through Ealston Gap it seems probable that the depression 
was once a large stream valley, and since river sand and gravel are 
found there the conclusion is further strengthened. From the base 
of the mountains until it reaches the southeast corner of T. 25 N., 
E. 6 W., Teton Eiver is not intrenched, but flows in a wide gravel-fillecl 
valley. Considerable water is absorbed by this gravel, and it is believed 
that there is an underflow from Teton Eiver through Ealston Gap to 
Muddy Creek valley. Springs in sec. 16, T. 25 N., E. 6 W., vary in 
their flow with the flow of Teton Eiver, the rise in the river increas- 
ing within a short period of time the flow of the springs. This 
phenomenon has been observed even during the dry season of the 
year, hence it is difficult to attribute this increase in the flow of the 
springs to any other source than the increase of Teton Eiver. A small 
stream north of Teton Eiver at present flows toward Ealston Gap, but 
as it reaches the vicinity of the gap it sinks to an underflow and prob- 
ably soon passes beneath the impervious lacustrine clay into the porous 
granitic gravel and becomes available as artesian water to the east 
when the overlying impervious, clay is penetrated by well borings. 

WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 

There are comparatively few towns in the Great Falls region. 
Great Falls, the largest, derives its city water supply from Missouri 
Eiver about 1 mile above the business center. From the pumping 
station, which is located in the NW. \ sec. 14, T. 20 N., E. 3 E., the 
water is pumped directly to a standpipe, located on a prominent hill 
in the eastern part of town, which has a capacity of 560,000 gallons. 
From this point it is distributed by a system of 6-inch mains to the 



70 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

different parts of the city. A field assay of the water taken from one 
of the hydrants in the main part of the city is as follows : 

Analysis of a sample of the Great Falls city water. 

[Parts per million.] 

Source * Missouri River. 

Color 

Iron 

Total hardness 125 

Alkalinity 180 

Alkaline carbonates 32 

Alkaline-earth carbonates 160 

Chlorides 25 

Chouteau, the next town in importance within the district and the 
county seat of Teton County, depends entirely upon shallow wells 
for its water supply. Here water is obtained from valley filling at 
three distinct horizons, which, as previously stated, occur at depths 
below the surface of 7, 27, and 48 feet, respectively. The largest 
supply is usually found at a depth of 7 feet below the surface, but 
wells are generally sunk to the lower horizons in order to obtain 
water less liable to surface contamination. There is no general 
town system. 

The water supply for the town of Sand Coulee is derived from 
wells which show considerable variation in depth. In the valley 
wells are considerably over 100 feet deep. The well owned by Louis 
Dahn, situated in the valley in the northern part of town, is 168 
feet deep. On the slope of the hills bordering the valley water has 
been secured at depths of 25 to 30 feet, but the supply is variable. 
In the sides of some of the small coulees in the vicinity of this town 
there are many water seeps, as previously described, which if properly 
developed might afford a good domestic water supply. 

Considerable difficulty has been encountered in obtaining water 
for the town of Stockett. In the northern part of the town the 
people depend for water largely on small springs issuing from the 
base of sandstone in the sides of the coulee. It has been found by 
experiment that these small seeps in the hillside, when properly 
developed, often furnish a good steady flow of potable water. 
Farther up the coulee, in the main part of town, the Cottonwood 
Coal Company has sunk a well in the bottom of the main coulee to 
a depth of 50 feet. From the bottom of this well a tunnel 4 feet 
wide by 5J feet high has been dug 90 feet to the east and 125 feet 
to the west, thus obtaining the greater part of the underflow of the 
coulee in which Stockett is built. During the driest season of the 
year the well has furnished 65,000 gallons per day, and the average 
capacity is over 100,000 gallons a day, most of which is used by the 



CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF WATER. 71 

Cottonwood Coal Company. Wells sunk in the sides of the coulees 
furnish small quantities of water at varying depths. 

The present supply of water for both Sand Coulee and Stockett 
might be materially increased by the proper improvement of the 
numerous moist places occurring along the sides of many of the 
coulees. These moist places or seeps are generally indicated by the 
deeper green color of the vegetation. In many such localities if 
shallow excavations were made, water in considerable quantity would 
probably be obtained, which could easily be piped to houses situated in 
the valley, thus affording an excellent domestic water supply. The 
practicability of such a source of water has been demonstrated at a 
few places in the vicinity of Stockett and at many places along Otter 
Creek, where springs occur under similar conditions. It is believed 
also that on many of the small farms in the vicinity of Stockett and 
Sand Coulee a careful examination of the sides of the coulee might 
result in the location of moist or seepy places where by inexpensive 
development water could be procured. 

CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF AVATER. 

During the course of the investigation of the water resources of the 
Great Falls region samples of water were collected from representa- 
tive wells and springs for the purpose of analysis. These analyses 
or assays were made in the field in accordance with the method em- 
ployed by the water resources branch of the United States Geological 
Survey. This method is fully described in Water-Supply Paper No. 
151. Knowledge was also desired concerning the variation, if any 
existed, in the quality of waters from the several formations repre- 
sented in the district. Although a complete analysis of the samples 
was not possible by the methods employed, the chief characteristics 
and chemical constituents were determined. These include physical 
properties, color and turbidity, and those depending more directly 
upon chemical quality, namely, the amount of iron, calcium, alkaline 
and alkaline-earth carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides present, and 
the hardness. 

The waters throughout the district are remarkably free from tur- 
bidity, only one sample possessing more than a trace. In only a few 
instances was the presence of coloring matter noted, and iron is a rare 
constituent in the waters examined. 

In the region east of Missouri River the great majority of springs 
issue from the sandstone or sandy shale of the Kootenai formation. 
In general the calcium and sulphate content of waters from this for- 
mation is high owing to the presence of gypsum in the shale. Near 
the southern border of the eastern portion of the district examined 
many springs issue from the Quadrant shale, and these are impreg- 
nated to a considerable extent with salts of magnesium and many are 



72 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GKEAT FALLS KEGION, MONT. 

charged with hydrogen sulphide, which renders them unpleasant for 
drinking. In the district where the surface formation is Colorado 
shale wells and surface springs are likewise apt to contain consider- 
able magnesium and the alkalinity is high. 

In the area west of the Missouri and south of Sun River, with the 
exception of Ulm Bench, water is relatively scarce and is obtained 
chiefly from the sandy members of the Montana. As above stated, 
the water of this district, especially in the Colorado shale area, is 
characterized by an abundance of magnesium salts, and the alkalinity 
is often so great as to render it unfit to drink. Several samples of 
wells and springs from this area also indicate the presence of a large 
amount of chlorides. In Sun River valley water is usually obtained 
from alluvium and is not so highly mineralized as that in the area to 
the south. To the north between Sun and Teton rivers but few sam- 
ples were taken. There are few wells in this region and springs are 
not abundant. The samples analyzed, however, indicate that the 
various members of the Montana group afford water containing more 
or less mineral matter. In the valley of the Teton, where water is 
obtained from alluvium, the mineral content, while not especially 
high, is considerable. On Burton Bench the chief water supply is 
from the gravel capping consisting principally of limestone pebbles. 
This gravel contains a large amount of soluble salts. The chlorine 
content is especially high. In spite of the mineralization, however, 
it is of better quality than that from wells or springs in the region to 
the east, where the gravel capping is absent and Colorado shale occu- 
pies the surface. From the artesian basin in Muddy Creek valley two 
samples of water were analyzed. These samples show considerable 
variation. No. 1, from the eastern portion of the basin, is not so 
highly mineralized as No. 2, obtained farther west, the difference 
being chiefly in the calcium and sulphate content. The following 
table shows the results of the analyses of waters from the various 
parts of the area investigated. The results are expressed in parts per 
million. 



CHEMICAL CHAEACTEE OF WATEE. 



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76 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

WATER POWER. 
DESCRIPTION OF FALLS. 



The water power of the Great Falls region is undoubtedly one of 
its most valuable assets, although at present it is practically unde- 
veloped. Between the Great Northern Railway bridge at Great Falls 
and the mouth of Belt Creek, a distance of approximately 10 miles, 
Missouri River has a total fall of G12 feet. Of this amount the 
greater part occurs at five different places, Black Eagle, Coulters, 
Rainbow, Crooked, and Big falls, which are collectively known as 
the Great Falls of Missouri River. (See PL III, A, B, and PL IV, 
A, B.) The remainder of the fall which takes place between the 
above-mentioned points is in the form of rapids occurring at varying 
intervals between the cataracts. Conflicting reports are current re- 
garding the exact height of the different falls. According to the first 
measurements, which were made by Lewis and Clark in 1804, Black 
Eagle Falls have a drop of 20 feet, Coulters 14 feet 7 inches, Rainbow 
47 feet 8 inches, Crooked 19 feet, and Big Falls 87 feet J inch. In 
M. S. Parker's description of the falls, published in 1894, the follow- 
ing measurements are given, which are somewhat at variance with 
those above quoted, although in a previous article by Parker, pub- 
lished in 1892, favorable comment is made on the accuracy of the 
Lewis and Clark measurement. Parker ascribes to Black Eagle 
Falls a drop of 20 feet, to Coulters 14 feet, to Rainbow 37 feet, to 
Crooked 19 feet, and to Big Falls 75 feet 4 inches. No careful meas- 
urements of these falls were made by the author while in the field, 
but according to the best information which can be obtained from 
local engineers familiar with the region the height of Black Eagle 
Falls, the first of the series, located at the Boston and Montana 
smelters, is 41 feet, including the masonry dam, which has been built 
on their crest. Coulters Falls, which are about 1 mile farther down- 
stream and just above the Great Northern Railway bridge, have a 
drop of 14 feet. A short distance below the railroad bridge and about 
one-eighth of a mile from Coulters Falls, are Rainbow Falls, which 
have a drop of 37 feet. Crooked Falls, so named from their irreg- 
ular shape, which occur about one-fourth of a mile farther down- 
stream, drop 20 feet, and 4 miles still farther down the Missouri the 
water at Big Falls plunges over a precipice 75 feet high. Views of 
Black Eagle, Rainbow, Crooked, and Big falls are shown in Pis. Ill, 
A, /?, and TV, A, /?, respectively. 

UTILIZATION. 

At present power from only Black Eagle Falls has been developed. 
The Boston and Montana Smelter Company have constructed a large 
masonry dam which develops sufficient power, supplemented by an 



WATER POWER. 



77 



auxiliary steam plant, to supply the large smelters owned by that 
company on the north side of Missouri Biver at this place. The 
amount of horsepower developed at Black Eagle Falls varies from 
6,000 to 12,000, depending on the season. In addition to the large 
power plant located on the north side of the river there is also a 
smaller power plant on the south side, which is used as an electric 
station for power for street railways, electric-light plant, Royal Mill- 
ing Company's flour mills, and a number of smaller factories. 



UNDEVELOPED POWER. 

Coulters, Rainbow, Crooked, and Big falls are wholly undeveloped, 
although they are apparently more favorably situated for power 
development than Black Eagle Falls. The following table shows the 
available horsepower of the different falls : 

Available horsepower of the Great Falls of Missouri River. 



Name. 


Height. 


Discharge. 


Horsepower. 


Black Eagle Falls 


Feet. 
41 
14 

37 
20 
75 


Second-feet. 
1,800 
2,400 
2,400 
2,400 
2,400 


6,545 




3 272 




8,072 


Crooked Falls 


4,333 


Big Falls 


16, 363 








38, 585 



The above statements are based on a minimum flow of Missouri 
River above Black Eagle Falls of 1,800 second-feet, as shown by 
Government discharge measurements extending over a period of 
four years, from 1902 to 1905, inclusive. These measurements were 
taken at Cascade, where the Geological Survey has maintained a 
gaging station for a number of years. To the measurements of this 
gaging station is added an average minimum flow of Sun River, 
which empties into the Missouri a short distance above Great Falls 
and between Cascade and Black Eagle Falls. Below Black Eagle 
Falls Giant Springs add to the flow of the river approximately 600 
cubic feet per second, which apparently does not vary at different 
seasons of the year. Taking this amount into consideration Coul- 
ters, Rainbow, Crooked, and Big falls would have a minimum flow of 
about 2,400 second-feet. This amount has been used for calculating 
the available horsepower at these cataracts. > Of course it should be 
borne in mind that by the proper development of any one of these 
falls the amount of available horsepower could be materially in- 
creased. It is possible also that by constructing suitable dams the 
fall of the numerous small rapids which occur between the cataracts 
could be made to furnish considerable power, but as such questions 
depend entirely on the nature and extent of the development, no esti- 



78 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GKEAT FALLS KEGION, MONT. 

mate as to the total horsepower which could be developed under ideal 
conditions of improvement in the vicinity of Great Falls is here 
given. 

IRRIGATION. 

GENERAL STATEMENTS. 

Irrigation has been practiced along the valleys of the larger streams 
in the Great Falls region for many years, but its growth and develop- 
ment have been necessarily slow until recently. Prior to the building 
of railroad lines into the district, which was in 1886, and for some 
time afterwards, the inhabitants of the region were principally en- 
gaged in cattle raising and mining, and only small tracts were irri- 
gated here and there along the valleys. With the growth in popula- 
tion and the increased demand for agricultural produce, irrigation 
began to be more generally practiced along the larger streams, result- 
ing eventually in the construction of several large canals by private 
individuals or small companies organized among the ranchmen. 
Extensive preparations are now being made, both by the Government 
and by private enterprises, to reclaim larger tracts of land along 
Sun and Teton rivers and the highland lying between these two 
streams. (See PL VII.) 

SUN RIVER VALLEY. 

Sun River valley is one of the most extensively irrigated valleys 
in the Great Falls region. There are a large number of small ditches 
covering the lower lands along each side of the river from the vicinity 
of Great Falls to the base of the Lewis Mountains. In addition to 
these several large canals have been constructed by individual ranch- 
men and small companies organized among the farmers. The largest 
of these is the Flowerree Trustee ditch, which is taken out of North 
Fork of Sun River near the center of sec. 20, T. 21 N., R. 6 W., and 
extends for about 25 miles eastward, covering a large territory of 
table-land bordering Sun River on the north. Another and some- 
what smaller ditch occurs on the same side of Sun River farther 
downstream, known as the Sun River canal. Its headgate is located 
near the east end of old Fort Shaw Reservation, and it furnishes 
water to an area nearly a mile in width, extending east as far as 
Muddy Creek of Sun River. One of the largest canals on the south 
side of Sun River is the Crown Butte canal, constructed by individual 
enterprise, which leaves the river in the southeast corner of sec. 6, T. 
20 N., R. 4 W., and extending eastward crosses Sims Creek in a big 
loop, and passing through a low divide north of Crown Butte empties 
into the head of Little Muddy Creek valley. A number of smaller 
ditches are found along the south side of the river, including, from 
east to west, Campbell, Eder, and Richling Company, Bickel Burk, 



IRRIGATION. 79 

Butler, Clemens, Phyllip, Mayer, and others farther up South Fork 
of Sun River. The Government irrigation project along the south side 
of Sun River, known as the Fort Shaw canal, covers about 16,000 acres 
in the vicinity of the Fort Shaw Reservation. The larger features 
of irrigation along Sun River valley are shown on the map (PL VII) . 

TETON RIVER VALLEY. 

Irrigation is not extensively practiced along the valley of Teton 
River in the vicinity of Chouteau. A few small farms are irrigated 
around Chouteau and near the head of Spring Creek, but, with 
these exceptions, irrigation is confined to Burton Bench, where a 
number of large canals have been constructed. Burton Bench, which 
is one of the largest, if not the largest, irrigation district in the area 
described, is supplied with water by three large canals, the Burton, 
Cooperative, and Eldorado canals. These canals are all taken from 
the Teton River 10 miles above Chouteau. Their approximate loca- 
tion and the land irrigated by them is shown on PL VII. 

The Cascade Land Company's ditch, which is taken out of Deep 
Creek on the south side about 3 miles above its mouth, extends 
around the east side of Priest Buttes, crosses by siphon flume the 
north end of Freezeout Basin, and continues to the Cascade Land 
Company's home ranch, where it furnishes water for several hun- 
dred acres of land situated in the southwestern part of T. 23 N., 
R. 3 W. A short distance below the headgates of the Cascade Land 
Company's ditch there is another ditch which is owned by the S. T. 
Cattle Company. It extends down the river about 6 miles, where it 
supplies Avater for over a thousand acres of land in T. 24 N., 
Rs. 3 and 4 W. The location of the above-described ditches and the 
approximate limits of the land to which they supply water are 
shown on PL VII. 

OTHER VALLEYS. 

Along the east side of Missouri River in the vicinity of Cascade, 
irrigation has been practiced for many years. No large canals have 
been constructed in this region, but a number of small ditches carry 
water some distance out from the river to scattered ranches along 
the valley. In Smith River valley are a number of irrigated ranches, 
but only a relatively small portion of the valley land is now culti- 
vated. Hound Creek, one of its principal tributaries from the west, 
has a few small irrigated ranches along its course. Considerable 
irrigation is carried on all along Belt and Otter Creek valleys. No 
large canals have been built along these streams, owing mainly to 
the fact that the valleys are narrow and the amount of irrigable 
land small. Short ditches which occur at frequent intervals supply 



80 GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

water to small fields. Throughout the eastern portion of the district 
the streams carry only a small flow of water, all of which has been 
appropriated for irrigation purposes. In some cases private reser- 
voirs have been constructed to increase the available supply by stor- 
ing flood waters. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Throughout the lower Plains portion of the Great Falls region the 
aridity of the climate renders tillage without irrigation impracticable, 
but in the plateau region bordering Little Belt and Highwood moun- 
tains dry farming is extensively practiced far up the slopes of these 
ranges. The cultivated portions of the area examined comprise a 
relatively small part of the entire district, the remainder being util- 
ized for pasturage of cattle — an important industry of the region, to 
which the upland areas are well adapted. Among the chief agri- 
cultural products are wheat, oats, barley, rye, spelt, flax, alfalfa, tame 
hay, potatoes, and a variety of garden vegetables, most of which are 
consumed by workers in the mines and smelters surrounding Great 
Falls. The main crop is wheat, which has a yield varying from 20 to 
40 bushels per acre. Both winter and spring wheat is raised, but the 
preference seems to be for winter wheat at present. Oats have a large 
yield, ranging from 35 to 45 bushels per acre, and the yield of potatoes 
and other vegetables is unusually large. 

Cascade County, Mont., is one of the most important grain centers 
in the State. Fruit raising is a growing industry, and many young, 
well-kept orchards are to be found throughout the district ; currants, 
gooseberries, and strawberries are among the important fruits. The 
seasons are ordinarily of sufficient length to insure the maturity of all 
cultivated crops, except on the higher slopes bordering the inclosing 
mountain ranges, where the time between killing frosts is short. 

The distribution and extent of the land irrigated, also the area in 
which dry farming is practiced, are shown on PL VII. 

CLIMATE. 

TEMPERATURE. 

General statements. — The temperature records of this general re- 
gion present a very wide range between extremes — a feature which 
is apt to cause an erroneous impression. Though the annual range 
is probably as large as in any other part of the United States, the 
periods of low temperature are of short duration and are generally 
attended by dry, calm atmosphere. Under these conditions the low 
winter temperatures are not so severe on life in general as much 
higher temperatures would be under less favorable conditions. Owing 
to this fact stock can successfully winter on the range without shelter. 
The summer temperatures, although high, are not so oppressive as 
\\\\ equivalent temperature would be in more humid atmosphere in 



CLIMATE. 81 

low altitudes. The summer days are long and often very hot, but 
as evening approaches the air cools rapidly by radiation, and the 
nights are cool and comfortable. 

Great Falls region. — Very few meteorological data are available 
regarding the mountainous districts surrounding the Great Falls 
region, but there are a number of places lower down on the plains 
where systematic observations have been carried on for a number of 
years. The first meteorological station was established at Chouteau 
in 1890, and in December of the following year a similar station was 
placed at Great Falls. The observations begun at Chouteau were 
continued for only one year, but the station was reestablished at this 
place in January, 1905. Climate data began to be collected in a 
systematic way at Sun Kiver in March, 1895, and a station was estab- 
lished at Augusta in July, 1896. Records of the temperature have 
been collected at Cascade, Mont., since May, 1891, but observations 
during the first two months are not quoted below. At Great Falls, 
where the most systematic information has been procured, and where 
the results are in a measure representative of the district, the mean 
monthly temperatures from 1893 to 1903, inclusive, are as follows : 

Mean monthly temperatures for ten years at Great Falls, Mont. 



°F. 

January 26 

February 26 

March 32 

April 45 

May 55 

June 62 



°F. 

July 68 

August 67 

September 56 

October 49 

November 33 

December 30 



Throughout the above-described period the mean of the maximum 
temperatures at Great Falls varied from 36° in January to 83° in 
July. The absolute maximum temperatures range from 60° in 
December to 106° in August, the mean of the minimum from — 11° in 
January to 51° in July, and the absolute minimum from — 38° in 
January to 35° in July. 

Although the climatic observations made at Great Falls may be 
regarded as in a measure representative of the district, yet for the 
purpose of comparing the variations between stations located near 
the base of the mountains and those farther out on the plains, the 
following comparative table is introduced. The highest tempera- 
ture ever recorded at the Great Falls station is 106°, which occurred 
in August, 1892. The minimum temperature recorded was — 38° in 
January, 1893. The average date of the first killing frost in autumn 
is in the latter part of September, while the average date of the last 
killing frost in spring is about the first of May. The direction of 
the prevailing wind is southwest, except in June, when it is west. 
54572— irr 221—09 6 



82 



GEOLOGY AND WATEKS OF GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 



Comparative temperatures (°F.) at Augusta, Great Falls, Cascade, and Chouteau 
for five years (1902-1906, inclusive). 





Maximum. 


Minimum. 


Mean. 




1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


January: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


58 
60 


63 
56 


54 
52 


55 
47 
56 


60 
53 


-30 
-23 


-14 
- 2 


-10 

- 7 


-28 
-21 
-21 


-26 
-24 
-28 
-21 

-14 
-10 
- 9 
-10 

-35 
-24 
-31 

-28 

14 
25 
20 
22 

19 
30 

28 
22 

30 
40 
37 
35 

38 
45 

48 
38 

31 

44 
38 
39 


23.9 

27.6 


31.0 
31.8 


27.4 
29.4 


18.2 
18.2 
19.4 


28.2 
29.2 










61 

63 
55 
60 
63 

70 
68 
72 
71 

86 
82 
86 
85 

85 
87 
88 
90 

82 
80 
85 
80 

88 
92 
98 
94 

93 
96 

94 
97 














28.5 


February: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


58 
60 


55 
55 


54 
52 


65 
62 
63 
64 

70 
71 
75 
69 

73 
74 
76 
72 

78 
78 
82 
81 

83 
88 
88 
84 

91 
93 
95 
98 

89 
93 
96 
95 

85 

86 


-19 
-16 


-21 
-18 


-20 

-16 


-43 

-30 

-38 
-34 

- 7 
9 
1 
6 

4 
19 
14 
11 

26 
31 
28 
25 

30 
35 
33 
31 

31 
48 
44 
34 

31 
42 
40 
35 

27 
32 


26.6 
27.5 


24.0 
25.9 


15.8 
15.1 


18.6 
20.2 
22.3 
19.9 

37.0 
40.8 
42.0 
37.8 

41.2 
44.6 
45.5 
41.6 

46.6 
50.6 
51.3 
47.2 

53.8 
58.0 
58.4 
55.6 

67 
68.4 
68.5 
65.3 

62.9 
70.2 
70.2 
65.6 

55.1 
59.6 


29.2 
30.1 
33.0 






















30.0 


March : 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


55 
56 


62 
63 


58 
45 


-16 
- 6 


-13 

- 7 


-21 
-13 


29.2 
35.0 


25.7 
27.2 


22.8 
16.6 


23.2 
26.2 
27.2 






















24.3 


April: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


66 

68 


72 
72 


79 
72 


15 
20 


10 
20 


16 
20 


39.8 
43.7 


39.5 
43.8 


44.8 
48.2 


45.6 
49.0 
50.8 






















47.4 


May: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


86 
86 


84 
89 


77 
82 


25 
30 


24 

27 


20 
30 


50.8 
56.2 


47.2 
51.0 


49.5 
54.2 


46.6 
50.1 
51.0 






















48.6 


June: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 
Cascade 


83 
86 


86 

87 


90 
94 


27 
34 


32 

40 


32 
41 


53.2 
57.4 


60.0 
65.0 


56.4 
62.0 


53.0 
57.7 
59.4 






















55.4 


July: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


87 
92 


93 
92 


"97" 
99 


36 
42 


34 
42 


"48" 
41 


59.9 
65.4 


60.0 

65.6 


'69.' 5" 
68.6 


63.4 
69.8 
71.4 
















66.4 


August : 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 
Cascade 


86 
89 


92 
94 


91 
86 
100 


35 

43 


32 
42 


31 
17 
35 


61.1 
67.0 


60.3 
65.5 


60.8 
53.6 
67.4 


60.2 
65.4 
63.4 
















62.5 


September: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


83 
83 


80 
80 


88 
90 
95 


23 

28 


20 
30 


19 
30 
26 


49.9 
56.7 


50.6 
56.1 


55.6 
57.8 
60.4 




Chouteau ... 






87 

78 
77 
85 
78 

74 
64 
69 
75 

56 
51 








27 

- 2 
2 
3 

- 4 

-28 
-18 
-21 
-24 

-10 

-16 








57.2 

40.6 
41.0 
45.0 
40.6 

35 
36.7 




October: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


80 

77 


80 

78 


81 
80 
86 




19 
22 


20 
25 


11 

28 
22 




45.8 
48-8 


48.8 
51.8 


47.8 
50.6 
48.4 
























November: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 


54 

58 


72 
70 


74 
65 
66 




- 2 
6 


-39 
-25 


10 
17 
13 




28.9 
32.6 


27.0 
31.6 


43.0 
45.8 
47.6 






















37.1 

32 

31.4 




December: 

Augusta 

Great Falls... 
Cascade 


52 
52 


61 
56 


60 
54 

67 




-17 
-10 


-14 
-12 


-26 
-20 
-24 




24.2 
23.6 


33.0 
33.8 


29.7 
31.4 
33.3 




Chouteau 






58 








- 9 








33.0 































RAINFALL. 

There is only a moderate amount of rainfall throughout the Great 
Falls region, especially in that portion bordering the adjacent moun- 
tain ranges. On the lower lands farther out on the plains more arid 
conditions prevail. A characteristic of the annual precipitation in 
this legion, as in other parts of Montana, is that a large percentage 
falls during the growing season. The amount of rainfall received 
during the four summer months nearly equals that for the remainder 



CLIMATE. 



83 



of the year — a feature peculiarly favorable for agriculture. The 
mean monthly precipitation at Great Falls for a period of ten years, 
1893 to 1903, inclusive, is as follows: 



Mean monthly precipitation at Great Falls, Mont. 



January 0. 6 

February .5 

March .7 

April 1. 2 

May 2. 6 

June 2.8 



July 

August 

September 
October __. 
November . 
December . 



During the period of ten years above described the total rainfall for 
the driest year was 6.7 inches, while the total for the wettest year was 
17.3 inches. The average depth of snow for this period is 39.6 inches, 
and the heaviest snowfall in twenty-four hours is 9.3 inches. 

In order to show the relative precipitation of the regions adjacent 
*^to the mountains and those farther out on the plains, the following 
comparative table is introduced; 

Relative precipitation at Augusta, Great Falls, Cascade, and Chouteau for five 
years (1902-1906, inclusive) . 





Rain and snow (melted) . 


Snow. 




1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


1903. 


January: 

Augusta 

Great Falls. 


0.14 
.16 


0.19 
.08 


0.21 
.17 


0.40 
.32 
.23 


0.51 
.32 
.20 
.12 

.45 
.77 
.85 
.08 

.70 
.73 
.63 
.31 


3.3 
1.6 


1.5 
.7 


2.5 

1.7 


4.0 


5.0 


Cascade 


4.5 


7.1 


Chouteau 
















February: 

Augusta 


.49 
1.02 


.18 
.35 


.15 

.51 


.40 
.17 
.31 
.12 

2.27 
.66 
,55 
-56 

1.78 
.68 
.84 
-55 

1.52 
1.99 
2.30 
1.45 

4.97 
4.23 
5.48 
2.63 

1.70 
.67 
1.04 
1.25 

1.44 
.82 

2.05 
.70 


8.2 2.0 
9. 8 3. 5 


1.0 
4.9 


4.0 


4.5 


Great Falls 




Cascade 






9.0 

2.4 

1.5 


10.0 


Chouteau 














Tr. 


March: 

Augusta 

Great Falls 


.76 
.19 


1.00 
.89 


2.18 
2.20 


14.0 
1.6 


10.0 
8.0 


18.0 
22.0 


7.0 


Cascade 


8.5 
4.6 

10.0 

"ii.'s" 


9.1 


Chouteau 
















April: 

Augusta 


.35 
.05 


1.71 
2.00 


.50 
.62 


.92 
1.17 
1.16 

.56 

6.43 
5.03 
5.79 

4.47 

.97 
5.59 
2.69 
1.57 

1.00 
.88 
.80 

1.14 

2.18 
2.66 
3.15 
2.75 




13.0 


1.5 
Tr. 




Great Falls 


Tr. 


Cascade 








Chouteau . 














May: 

Augusta . . . 


4.16 
5.93 


2.48 
1.84 


.92 
1.16 


2.5 


8.0 


6.0 






Great Falls. 


Tr. 
Tr. 
2.0 




Cascade 








.1 


Chouteau 
















June: 

Augusta 


.79 
4.02 


1.36 
2.19 


.99 
1.06 










Great Falls 












Cascade 










Chouteau 

















July: 

Augusta 




3.54 

2.74 


"".'97' 
29 






| 




Great Falls 


2.14 










Cascade. . 










Chouteau 














August: 

Augusta 


.77 
.55 


1.51 

•74 


.32 

1-18 
.12 






| ■ 




Great Falls 










Cascade 










Chouteau 
















a A portion of the data above and in the statements immediately following are for the 
period from 1893 to 1903. The remainder is computed from the establishment of the 
station in 1891. 



84 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OP GREAT FALLS REGION, MONT. 

Relative precipitation at Augusta, Great Falls, Cascade, etc. — Continued. 





Rain and 


snow (melted.). 


Snow. 




1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. j 1906. 


September: 

Augusta 


.36 

.74 


.75 
.99 


.16 
.14 
.13 


.07 
.18 










Great Falls 






Tr. 




i 


Cascade 








Chouteau 






.27 

.47 
.26 
.38 
.10 

.60 
1.25 
1.50 

.26 

.10 
.18 
.20 
Tr. 












October: 


Tr. 

.07 


.27 
.45 


.10 
.44 
.29 






2.2 
Tr. 


1.0 
Tr. 
Tr. 


5 


Great Falls 










Cascade 






4.0 




Chouteau 














November: 


.32 
.45 


1.71 

.83 


Tr. 
.01 

.02 








16.0 
8.3 


Tr. 


6 


Great Falls 










Cascade 










10.3 


Chouteau 


















December: 


1.00 
.39 


.69 
.91 


.40 
.54 
.38 






6.0 
9.1 


4.0 
8.0 


1.0 
1.8 
2.0 
Tr. 




Great Falls 








Cascade 








Chouteau 



































CULTURE. 

Settlement here as elsewhere is determined by geologic and cli- 
matic conditions. Along all the larger stream valleys where surface 
water for irrigation purposes is available settlements are numerous, 
but much of the upland and grazing districts is thinly populated. 
On the higher slopes bordering the mountains in the zone of in- 
creased rainfall many small farms occur, some of which are among 
the best improved places found in the district. 

One relatively large town, three medium-sized coal-mining towns, 
and a number of smaller trading points are in the district. Great 
Falls, a town of 18,000 inhabitants and a thriving business center, 
is located on Missouri River near the north-central portion of the 
district. Although at present none of its railroad lines are trans- 
continental, they are the most important connecting lines between 
the main lines of the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific, and 
when the Billings and Northern road, now being constructed between 
Billings and Great Falls, is completed it will open up a new trans- 
continental route through Great Falls to the northwest coast. At 
present railroad lines extend in four directions from Great Falls: 
The Great Northern southwestward to Helena and Butte; the Mon- 
tana and Great Northern northwestward to Shelby Junction, a point 
on the main line of the Great Northern ; the Great Northern extend- 
ing northeastward to Havre, another point on the Great Northern 
main line ; and the Neihart branch of the Great Northern connecting 
Great Falls with Neihart, a silver-mining town in the Little Belt 
Mountains about 100 miles to the southeast. This road has a short 
branch line leaving it at Gerber station for Stockett and Sand Coulee, 
two of the larger coal-mining camps. The Boston and Montana 
Consolidated Copper and Silver Mining Company's smelters and 



CULTURE. 85 

refineries are located at Great Falls; also the Eoyal Milling Com- 
pany, besides a number of smaller business enterprises. The ore 
handled at the smelters comes from Butte and Anaconda; this, to- 
gether with the coal and limestone used in the operation of the plant, 
makes a relatively large freight traffic for Great Falls, while it also 
furnishes employment for a large force of men. 

Belt, one of the largest coal-mining towns in the region, has a 
population of about 1,000, composed mainly of employees of the 
Anaconda Copper Mining Company, the largest operators at this 
place. It is located on Belt Creek, about 20 miles southeast of Great 
Falls, on the Neihart branch of the Great Northern road, and is the 
oldest coal-mining town in this region. About 10 miles west of 
Belt and about 10 miles from Great Falls are the two coal-mining 
towns of Stockett and Sand Coulee. At Stockett, the larger of the 
two places, is located the Cottonwood Coal Company, which is one 
of the two largest coal-mining companies operating in the district. 
Stockett has a population of about 800, composed largely of coal 
miners employed by the Cottonwood Coal Company. Sand Coulee, 
about 2|- miles northwest of Stockett, is a smaller mining town of 
about 400 inhabitants. It is situated in Straight Coulee, a branch of 
Sand Coulee, and owes its existence mainly to the Nelson and Gerber 
coal companies, which are operating at this place. 

The other towns in the district are mainly supported by a ranch 
population. Chouteau, the most important of these and the county 
seat of Teton County, is located on Teton River, about 40 miles 
northwest of Great Falls. It has a population of about 400, and is 
bordered on the north by one of the oldest and best-developed irri- 
gated districts in the Great Falls region. Along Sun River there are 
a number of small towns and trading- points. The largest of these is 
Augusta, in Lewis and Clark County, on South* Fork of Sun 
River, about 3 miles above its mouth. Sun River, somewhat smaller, 
although one of the oldest towns in this region, "is located in Sun 
River Valley, about 20 miles west of Great Falls. Two towns 
have recently been laid out in Sun River valley by the Reclamation 
Service engineers — one at Fort Shaw Indian School, which will be 
known as Shaw, and another at the mouth of Sims Creek, which is 
called Sims. At Flowerree home ranch there is a large company 
store and another at Sunnyside, owned by the Sun River Stock and 
Land Company. Along the Great Northern Railway line the prin- 
cipal town within the area described is Collins, located on the north 
side of Teton River. From this place stage lines connect with Chou- 
teau through Farmington, a post-office and store in the middle of 
Burton Bench. Bynum, another small trading point, is located in 
the northwest part of Burton Bench. 



86 GEOLOGY AND WATEES OF GEEAT EALLS EEGION, MONT. 

There are no towns along Missouri River below Great Falls within 
the area described, but above that town are Wo small stations, Ulm 
and Cascade, the latter, located near the base of the Big Belt Moun- 
tains, with a population of about 200. It is supported by a large 
ranch trade from each side of the river. 

On Smith River there is a post-office known as Truly, about 5 miles 
above its mouth ; another, Orr, farther up the river, has recently been 
discontinued. 

In Belt Creek valley, about 2 miles above Belt, is the small town of 
Armington, which is situated at the junction of the new Billings 
and Northern and the Neihart branch of the Great Northern. It is 
mainly a small railroad town, which receives a portion of the ranch 
trade of the surrounding country. Along the new railroad there are a 
few small stores, located at intervals of 12 to 15 miles ; these are Spion 
Kop, Geyser, and Stanford, the latter being an important trading 
point for a large ranch district along Skull, Running Wolf, and Sage 
Creek valleys. 

While the Great Falls region is at present a sparsely settled dis- 
trict, it is believed that the Government irrigation projects now under 
way which will reclaim millions of acres of fertile farming land, the 
almost unparalleled advantages for the development of water powder, 
and the increasing railroad facilities will cause the population to 
increase rapidly within the next decade. 



INDEX. 



Agriculture, condition of 

Alluvium, character and distribution of 

water in 

Altitudes, statement of 

Anaconda Consolidated Copper and Mining 

Co., smelters of, view of 

Armington, description of 

Arrow Creek, description of 

Artesian wells, data on 

distribution of 

Augusta, description of 

rainfall at 

springs near 

temperature at 

water of, analyses of 

wells near 

Belt, description of 

rocks at 

water of, analyses of 

well near 

Belt Creek, description of 11, 

flow of 

rocks on 17-18, 

section on 

springs on 

view of 

Benton Lake, description of 

Big Belt Range, structure of 

Big Falls, description of 

view of 

Black Eagle Falls, development at 8, 

description of 

view of 

Box Elder Creek, flow of 

wells on 

Burton Bench, description of 

lakes on 

springs on 

water of, quality of 

wells on 39, 

Bynum, location of 

Calvert, W. R., work of 

Carboniferous rocks, character and distribu- 
tion of 

Cascade, description of 

flow at 

irrigation near 

springs near 

rainfall at 

temperature at 

wells near 

Cascade formation, correlation of 18, 

Castle limestone, occurrence of 

Chief Mountain, fault at 



Page. 

80 j 
15,26 

26 I 
10-12 ! 



28 

86 

34 

58-59 

60-61 

85 

83-84 

37,42 

82 

73 

51,65 

85 

21 

74-75 

59 

32-33 

33 

19,21 

19 

36 

12 

34 

27-28 

76-77 

30 

76-77 

76-77 

28 

33 

63 

13,67 

34-35 

36 

72 

67-68 

85 



16-20 
86 
29 

79-80 
43 

83-84 
82 
52 

20-21 
17 
27 



Page. 

Chouteau, description of 85 

irrigation near 79 

rainfall at 83-84 

springs near 36, 42 

temperature at 82 

water supply of 70 

analysis of 73 

wells near 50-51, 67 

Claggett formation, character and distribu- 
tion of 15, 23-24 

section of 24 

water of 24, 66 

Climate, data on 80-84 

Collins, description of 85 

Colorado formation, character and distribu- 
tion of 15, 22-23 

spring from, view of 36 

water in 23, 35, 64, 65, 66, 72 

Cora, water of, analysis of 74 

Coulters Falls, description of 76-77 

Cretaceous rocks, character and distribution 

of 15-16, 20-24 

Crooked Falls, description of 76-77 

view of 30 

Crown Butte, description of 12 

rocks of " 23. 

Culture, description of 84-86 

Deep Creek valley, wells in 67 

Dinosaurs, discovery of 18-19 

Drainage, description of 11-14, 28-34 

Drilling, method of 68 

Dutton, wells near 39, 51, 66 

wells near, record of 41 

Eagle formation, character and distribution 

of .- 15,23 

view of 12 

water in 23, 35, 36, 65, 66 

Eakin, H. M., work of 8 

Ellis formation, character and distribution 

of 16,18 

water of 18 

Farmington, wells near 58-59 

Faults, occurrence and character of 27-28 

Fort Benton, rocks at 22 

Fort Benton Bench, description of 66-67 

wells in 66-67 

Fort Shaw, springs near 36 

well at 65 

Fort Shaw Butte, description of 12 

rocks of 23 

springs at 36 

Freezeout Basin, description of 13 

Freezeout Bench, description of 66 

wells in 66 

87 



88 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Freezeout Lake, description of 13, 34 

springs near 66 

French, John, work of 8 

Geography, description of 10-14 

Geology, account of 14-28 

Geyser, location of 86 

springs near 47-49 

water of, analyses of 75 

wells near 57, 61-62 

Geyser Creek, rocks on 19 

Giant Springs, description of 37 

flow of 37 

analysis of 38 

source of 38-39 

view of 36 

Gilmore, C. H., on dinosaur fossils 18 

Girty, G. H., fossils determined by 17 

Glacial deposits, character and distribution 

of 15, 25-26 

water in 26' 

Gravels, character and distribution of 15, 24-25 

water in 25 

Great Falls (town), description of 84-85 

irrigation near 78-79 

map of 36 

rainfall at 83-84 

rocks near 22 

springs near 43-44, 63-64 

temperature at 81-82 

water powers at 76-77 

water supply of 69-70 

analysis of 70, 73, 74 

wells near 39, 53-55, 59, 63-64 

records of 39-41 

Hazlett Creek, rocks on 19 

Hepler, springs near 42 

water of, analyses of 73 

wells near 51 

Highwoods Mountains, description of 10 

structure of 27 

Irrigation, status of 78-80 

Jurassic rocks, character and distribution of . 16 

Keewatin ice sheet, extent of 25 

Kibbey sandstone, occurrence of 18 

Kootenai formation, character and distribu- 
tion of 15,20-22 

section of 21 

water in 22,35,64,71 

Laccoliths, occurrence and character of 27 

Lake deposits, occurrence and character of. . . 15, 26 

Lakes, description of 34-35 

Lewis, Meriwether, on Great Falls region 8 

Lewis Range, structure of 27-28 

Literature, list of 8-10 

Little Belt Mountains, description of 10-11 

structure of 27 

Little Otter Creek, location of 10 

rocks on 17 

Lonetree Creek, artesian water on 62 

Lowry, springs near 36 

Madison formation, character and distribu- 
tion of 16,17 

water in, absence of 18 

Map, geologic, of region Pocket. 

Ming Coulee, description of 12 

rocks on 17, 19 



Page. 

Missouri River, description of 28-29 

falls of ' 28 

views of 28, 30 

flow of 11, 29-30 

old channel of 25 

springs on 37, 64 

water powers on 76 

wells on 64 

Montana group, character and distribution 

of 15,23-24 

water in • 72 

Moraines. See Glacial deposits. 
Morrison formation, character and distribu- 
tion of 15, 18-19 

section of 19 

water of 19 

Mortson, O. C, work of 8 

Muddy Creek, artesian water on 61, 68-69 

artesian water on, quality of 72 

source of 69 

springs on 36 

Orr, location of 86 

Otter Creek, description of. .... . 33 

rocks on 19 

springs on 35, 36, 63 

wells on 63 

Otter Creek divide, description of 10 

Paine shale, occurrence of 17 

Plains province, description of 10-11 

Priest Buttes, description of 13 

Priest Lakes, description of 34 

Quadrant formation, character and distri- 
bution of 16, 17-18 

water of 18, 72 

Quaternary deposits, character and distri- 
bution of 15, 24-26 

Railroads, distribution of 84 

Rainbow Falls, description of 76-77 

view of 28 

Rainfall, data on 82-84 

Red Buttes, rocks of 22 

Riceville, rocks on 17-18 

Robbins, S. B., work of 8 

Running Wolf Creek, description of 34 

rocks on 19 

Sage Creek, artesian water on 62 

rocks on 19 

Sand Coulee, description of 12, 33-34 

rocks on 17, 19 

springs on 36 

wells in : 63-64 

Sand Coulee (town), water supply of 70, 71 

water supply of, analysis of 74 

Shaw, founding of 85 

Sims, founding of 85 

Skull Butte, description of 12 

rocks of 17, 21 

section at 21 

Skull Creek, artesian water on 62 

rocks on 19 

Smith River, description of 11, 31 

flow of 31 

irrigation near 79 

rocks on 19, 22, 23 

springs on 36 

wells near 64 



INDEX. 



89 



Page. 

Spanish Coulee, fossils in 20 

Spion Kop, location of 8G 

Springs, occurrence and character of 18, 35-39 

view of 36 

Square Butte, rocks of 23 

springs at 36 

view of 12 

Stanford, description of 86 

springs near 49-50 

water of, analysis of 75 

wells near 57-58, 59 

Stanford Buttes, description of 11 

Stockett, rocks on ' 17 

springs near 44-47 

watersupply of 70-71 

wells in and near 55-57, 63-64, 70 

analysis of 74 

Stratigraphy, account of 14-26 

Streams, description of 11-14, 28-34 

Structure, description of 26-28 

Sun River, description of 11, 30 

flow of 30 

irrigation on 78-79 

section on 24 

springs on 36, 42 

wells near 51, 61, 65-66 

water of, analyses of 72 

quality of 73 

Sun River (town), description of 85 

Surface waters, description of 11-14, 21-35 

Surprise Creek, description of 34 

rocks on 19 

Swamps, description of 34-35 

Temperature, data on 80-82 

Terrace deposits, character and distribution 

of 24-25 



Page. 

Terrace deposits, water in 25 

Tertiary deposits, character and distribution 

of -15 

Teton Buttes, location of 13 

Teton River, description of 11, 31-32 

flowof 32 

irrigation on 79-80 

springs on 36 

water of, quality of 72 

wells near 66-67 

Towns, water supply of 69-71 

Truly, location of 86 

springs near 43 

wells near 52-53 

Ulm, location of 86 

Ulm Bench, description of 12 

rocks of 23 

wells on 64-65 

Underground waters, chemical character of. . 71-75 

description of 35-75 

description of, by districts 61-69 

Villages, water supply of 69-71 

Water, analyses of 73-76 

Water powers, description of 76-78 

Water resources, chemical character of 71-76 

description of ...... '. 28, 78 

development of 71 

source of 28 

Waters, underground. See Underground wa- 
ters. 

Wells, distribution of 39 

list of and data on 42-59 

records of 39-41 

Winchester, R. D., work of 8 

Wolf Butte, location of 12" 

Woodhurst limestone, occurrence of 17 



o 



54572— irr 221—09- 



* 




I 



